January 31

On This Day In Roman History, January 31

Theodore II Eirenikos, more commonly known as Theodore II of Constantinople, dies in exile on January 31, 1216 CE. Theodore II served as a high-ranking official, mostly during the reign of the Byzantine emperor Alexios III Angelos. During the fourth crusade, sometime in summer of 1203, Theodore fled Constantinople for the Empire of Nicaea, where he would continue to serve as a Patriarch of Constantinople. 

Did you know?

The sacking and conquest of Constantinople during the fourth crusade was carried out mostly due to the commercial rivalry between the Republic of Venice and the Byzantine Empire, with the religious side of the crusade against the Byzantines being a guise. However, religious rivalries did fuel some aspects of the attack, especially the occurrence of The Massacre of the Latins. This happened in April of 1182, and some 60,000 Roman Catholics (known as Latins) were either killed or fled. This event was aggravated to the point of violence not due to religion alone, but because of increasing financial tension. The Latins controlled the majority of the maritime trade and financial sector, which was probably the root of the problem. 

Pictured:  Theodoros II Eirenikos, the Levite. Hypatos philosophon, early 13th century - Classical Numismatic Group, Inc. http://www.cngcoins.com [GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html) or (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5)], via Wikimedia Commons.

Opinion

Welcome to my daily opinion! This is one of the more minor characters I think I have blogged about so far, but the period that Theodore II lived in was pretty crazy and maybe just a bit more interesting than him. The Republic of Venice was becoming insanely rich, connecting the Levant to Europe and taxing every trade between them. Also, during the fourth crusade mentioned above, the famous four bronze horses that are currently on top of St Mark's Basilica were stolen as plunder during the sack of Constantinople. This sack is known to history as "one of the most profitable and disgraceful sacks of a city in history."

Sources

   Brand, C. M. (1968). Byzantium confronts the west: 1180-1204. Cambridge: Harvard university.

   Fossier, R., Airlie, S., & Marsack, R. (1997). The Cambridge illustrated history of the Middle Ages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

   Phillips, J. (2004). The Fourth Crusade and the sack of Constantinople. New York: Viking.

Further Reading: 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_II_of_Constantinople

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Venice

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massacre_of_the_Latins

Special Thanks: Michael Houghan

Janurary 30

On This Day In Roman History, January 30

Livia Drusilla, the daughter of Marcus Livius Drusus Claudianus, is born on January 30, 59 or 58 BCE. She is most famous for her marriage to Octavian, but her earlier life was still filled with interesting political movement and other marriages. Her first marriage was to Tiberius Claudius Nero, who actually fought against Octavian during that civil war. Nero would flee with Livia for three years following the conclusions of the civil war, and eventually return from hiding in Achaea. Upon returning to Rome, Octavian would later say he fell in love with Livia instantly. His actions reflected this and he romantically perused Livia nearly immediately upon meeting her. This was somewhat concerning to contemporaries, and can be viewed the same way today, due to the fact that Octavian was currently married to Scribonia and Livia was currently married to the mentioned Nero. Whether or not Nero was convinced or forced to relinquish his 6-month pregnant wife to Octavian is a matter of debate, but I feel it safe to assume the latter. 

Did you know?

Livia is the first non-mythical woman to appear on a Roman provincial coin, doing so while still alive in 16 BCE. A series of these coins allow historians to see the evolution of the "ideal Roman woman" image, portraying the virtues Pietas and Concordia. This would later define other imperial women's image they wished to convey in the form of "honorable mothers and wives of Rome". It is also interesting to note that these series of coins allow us to see the style of woman, both in terms of hair and clothing, for the Roman elite of this time. 

Pictured: Livia Drusilla, wife of Emperor August. Made from Basalt, Roman artwork, 31 BCE - via Wikimedia Commons.

Livia's personality and the cult that followed it described her as having "proud and queenly attributes." Dio quotes her as saying:

"Once, when some naked men met her and were to be put to death in consequence, she saved their lives by saying that to a chaste woman such men are in no way different from statues. When someone asked her how she had obtained such a commanding influence over Augustus, she answered that it was by being scrupulously chaste herself, doing gladly whatever pleased him, not meddling with any of his affairs, and, in particular, by pretending neither to hear nor to notice the favourites of his passion."

Opinion

Welcome to my daily opinion! First of all, I am posting this blog on the wrong day (1/31/17), hopefully that doesn't screw up anyone looking for this date via the side-bar. My opinion today is that Livia lives one of the most interesting lives of any recorded Roman woman, period. She lived to the age of 87, which was pretty unheard of for the time. I found it fascinating to explore both the cultural and fashion statements she was making on coins, and what effect this must have had on contemporary woman trying to emulate the elite and powerful. These coins were basically the first glimpse into contemporary woman's fashion for others in the Empire, and it probably had a remarkable effect on woman's hair styles.

Sources

   Cocceianus, C. D., & Duckworth, H. T. (1916). A commentary on the fifty-third book of Dio Cassius' Roman history. Toronto: University of Toronto Library.

   Fraschetti, A. (2001). Roman women. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

   Kleiner, D. E., & Matheson, S. B. (2000). I, Claudia II: women in Roman art and society. Austin: University of Texas Press.

Further Reading:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberius_Claudius_Nero_(praetor_42_BC)

http://www.coinweek.com/featured-news/ancient-coin-roman-women-on-coins/

Also on this day:

Didius Julianus, Roman emperor is born in 193 CE.

Special Thanks: Michael Houghan

January 29

On This Day In Roman History, January 29 

Another incomplete today. I will be updating yesterday's and today's post sometime on 2/5/17. I had to do even more research for topics I am unfamiliar with, mainly due to the fact there is nothing overtly Roman that happened on this day. The topic will be covered is the Muslim conquest of Egypt during the early 600's when Emperor Heraclius and the Roman's would lose this ancient land for good. 

January 28

On This Day In Roman History, January 28

Karolus Magnus, or Charlemagne, dies in Aachem as the first Holy Roman Emperor.

It looks like nothing actual Roman happened today, except the death of  Charlemagne which is sort of Roman history. I was unprepared for this today and will need to do some Frankish research. Expect the posting by the evening of 2/5/17.

January 27

On This Day In Roman History. January 27

Imperator Caesar Nerva Traianus Divi Nervae filius Augustus, more commonly known as Trajan, assumes the throne after Nerva dies in his villa on January 27, 98 CE. Trajan's reign was characterized by many extensive building programs including the duly named Trajan's Forum, Trajan's Column, and Trajan's Market. Some of his first actions as Emperor included amassing a large donative to the plebians at the cost of halving the normal donatives to the army, reflecting his nature as a popular politician of the people.

Did you know?

In 107, Trajan initiated a project to decrease the purity of the silver denarius. This initial decline caused the purity of these coins to fall from 93.5 percent to 89.0 percent. The weight was thus notably much lighter, weighing in at 2.88 grams rather than 3.04 grams on average per coin. Trajan even went as far as to remove previously issued silver denari in order to melt down and re-mint them at his new devalued amount, allowing him to produce much more coinage to both civil and military spending. 

Pictured: An artist's interpretation of Trajan's Bridge depicted upon a light brown surface. By Rapsak [CC BY-SA 2.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0)], via Wikimedia Commons.

Trajan had this bridge constructed via a Greek architect by the name of Apollodorus, and its main use was to facilitate the movement of troops into Dacia during its conquest. Ut was 3,724 feet long and 49 feet wide, standing 62 feet above the Danube's surface. The Roman plaque to commemorate its completion is still intact today in modern day Kladovo, Serbia. 

Opinion

Trajan was an incredible Emperor. His construction works were really only the beginning of how awesome this guy was. When you view a map that says "Roman Empire in its greatest territorial size", this is under the rule of Trajan. He was a great Emperor in an even greater time in Roman history. His devaluation of the currency, however, was one of the more silly things he did. The concept of purity relating to inflation and devaluation of currency were concepts he, nor any polotician in Rome, could yet understand at the fundamental level.

Sources

   Alston, R. (2014). Aspects of Roman history, 31 BC-AD 117. London: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.

   O'Connor, C. (1993). Roman bridges. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

   Petit, P. (1976). Pax Romana. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Further Reading:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trajan

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trajan%27s_Bridge

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_currency

Also on this day:

Marcian, Byzantine emperor dies in 457 CE. 

January 26

On This Day In Roman History, January 26

Roman citizens celebrate the Sementivae, a feriae conceptivae of sowing commonly celebrated on January 26. This holiday was usually celebrated between January 24-26, but sometimes as early as the 22nd. The date would be decided by quotannis a magistratibus vel sacerdotibus concipiuntur, which was a magistrate or priest. Marcus Terentius Varro, a Roman scholar, describes feriae as "days instituted for the sake of the gods." It was not uncommon for things like public and private business to be suspended on these days. Tradition dictated that the Rex sacrorum, or the presiding priest, was not even allowed to view work being done. For this specific festival, the honoring of Ceres (the goddess of agriculture) and Tellus (Mother Earth) took place. Tellus was honored usually between the dates of January 24 - 26, and Ceres a week later on February 2.

Did you know?

Tellus, or Tellus Mater, is one of the di selecti. This means the goddess belonged to the set of twenty principle gods. She was also one of the twelve agricultural gods of Rome, most associated with Ceres. The Temple of Tellus was situated on the Carinae, which is located on the western end of the Esquiline hill in Rome. 

Pictured: Detail from a sarcophagus depicting a Mother Earth figure (3rd century AD), via Wikimedia Commons. Allegory of Mother Earth, detail of the front of a sarcophagus with the triumph of Dionysos and the Seasons. 

Tellus is most commonly depicted with a cornucopia, also found usually in a reclined position. Sometimes she is found holding bushels of fruits or flowers. Varro identifies Terra Mater here, quoted: "Not without cause was the Earth (Terra) called Mater and Ceres. It was believed that those who cultivated her led a pious and useful life (piam et utilem ... vitam), and that they were the sole survivors from the line of King Saturn." The word tellus is also a Latin noun for "land, territory; earth,"

Opinion

Welcome to my daily opinion! I love seeing how often in science fiction and pop-culture the terms Terra, or Terra Mater are used to describe Earth. The Latin etymology of this is alive and well today and can be seen in places ranging from Philip K. Dick's short stories, the Warhammer 40k universe, and Star Trek. These festivals, however, would appear much stranger to us in modern times, mostly due to all the sacrificial offerings. As awful as this is, some agriculture sacrifices like that mentioned above require the sacrifice of a puppy. I believe God gave us two hands, one for petting dogs and the other for petting dogs, so this one really hurt to read. On a more positive note, I implore today's reader to go look up some more images and depictions of Tellus, they are striking and beautiful.

Sources

   Forsythe, G. (2012). Time in Roman religion: one thousand years of religious history. New York: Routledge.

   Scullard, H. H. (1981). Festivals and ceremonies of the Roman Republic. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

   V. (1951). Varro. on the latin language: Books VIII-X, fragments. Cambridge: Harvard university press.

Further Readin:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terra_(mythology)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sementivae

Special Thanks: Michael Houghan

January 25

On This Day In Roman History, January 25

The Senate convenes to discuss picking a new ruler after Caligula's assassination, eventually agreeing to the Praetorian's claim of  Claudius' elevation to princeps on January 25, 41 CE. As I discussed yesterday, the conspiracy that ended Caligula's life and reign was plotted by several disgruntled Praetorian Guard members, as well as high-ranking Romans within the Senatorial class. Claudius witnessed first hand the carnage that ensued as Caligula's personal Germanic guardsmen slaughtered civilians and Senators alike, in retaliation for the assassination. It is rumored through tradition that a Praetorian named Gratus found Claudius hiding behind a curtain to escape from the retaliation of the Germanic guardsmen. It is probable that the Praetorians had pre-selected Caligula to present him to the senate. Caligula in later years would make bribery a normalized tool in controlling and securing the loyalty of the army and Praetorian Guard, and was the first to do so at this level. 

Did you know?

After the death of Claudius, the Senate debated the idea of changing government types. In the end, however, squabbles between the Senators on who would become the princeps during the plebiscite caused the discussion and debates to end fruitlessly. When they heard that the Praetorian guard had proclaimed Claudius as Emperor, they sent for him to present himself for Senatorial approval. He was apprehensive at first, fearing the repercussions that may follow with his new title. Claudius, under the personal protection of the Praetorian, did present himself, and would later pardon all the assassins involved in the plot to kill Caligula.

Pictured: Proclaiming Claudius Emperor by Lawrence Alma-Tadema, 1867. [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons.

Gratus is seen in the image finding a fearful Claudius, mistaking the Praetorian for the Germanic guard.  Josephus, a first-century Romano-Jewish scholar, describes how Gratus had found him: "But when Gratus, who was one of the soldiers that belonged to the palace, saw him, but did not well know by his countenance who he was, because it was dark, though he could well judge that it was a man who was privately there on some design, he came nearer to him; and when Claudius desired that he would retire, he discovered who he was, and owned him to be Claudius. So he said to his followers, "This is a Germanicus; come on, let us choose him for our emperor."

Opinion

Welcome to my daily opinion! Claudius used several tools, some new and some old, to secure his authority and legitimize his ascension to the purple. This was really the first time a Roman Emperor would use bribery on a large scale to bribe military officers and soldiers alike. It is a pretty simple formula and once everyone realized that true power lied within the martial hands of securing the army's loyalty, every Emperor after Claudius would follow suit. He used several proven tactics to secure authority as well, like adopting the name "Caesar" as a cognomen and dropping the "Nero" paterfamilias he had acquired years prior. It's my opinion, that such a financially loyal subject such as Claudius, had pre-arranged with the Praetorian what exactly would go down in terms of finance if they elevated him. It seems almost too random they stumbled upon an individual who would be so lucrative to their cause. 

Sources

   Josephus, F., & Whiston, W. (2001). The antiquities of the Jews. McLean, Va: IndyPublish.com.

   Momigliano, A. (1961). Claudius, the emperor and his achievement. Cambridge: Heffer.

   The tragedie of Claudius Tiberius Nero, Romes greatest tyrant: truly represented out of the purest records of those times. (1607). London: Printed for Francis Burton, dwelling in Paules Church-yard at the signe of the Flower-de-luce and Crowne.

Further Reading: 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claudius

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gratus

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josephus

Also on this day:

Leo IV the Khazar, Byzantine emperor is born in 750 CE.

Special Thanks: Michael Houghan

January 24

On This Day In Roman History, January 24

Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, more commonly known as Caligula, is attacked and assassinated while walking in a cryptoporticus located beneath the imperial palaces on January 24, 41 CE. The act was perpetrated by Cassius Chaerea, who along with an accompanying band of guardsmen, were successful in disposing of this controversial Emperor after a set of games held in his honor. These events were spurred on by Caligula's decision a year prior, which was to move from Rome to Alexandria in order to be worshiped as a living God. This was viewed as unacceptable by the Roman elite, who worried about what this loss of power from Rome meant for them. 

Did you know?

The Roman historian Suetonius wrote to compare the similarities of Julius Caesar's and Caligula's death. They were both named Gaius Julius Caesar, and both stabbed 30 times as reported by Suetonius. Both assassinations and conspiracies were carried out by a man named Cassius (Cassius Longinus for the plot against Caesar), and both Cassius Longinus and Cassius Chaerea were the first to stab during the attack.

Pictured: The hull of one of two ships recovered from Lake Nemi during the 1930s. This massive vessel served as an elaborate floating palace to the Emperor. via Wikimedia Commons. 

Suetonius also gives us a good description of these ships in their prime: "...they were filled with ample baths, galleries, and saloons, and supplied with a great variety of vines and fruit trees." These ships had no visible means of propulsion and were most likely towed out, either by ship or from ashore.

Opinion

Welcome to my daily opinion! I couldn't get enough of these super yachts that Caligula had. They were essentially floating palaces, complete with gardens and baths. The Italians of the 1930's who found these vessels must have been in awe. The sheer scope of the ships can't be fully realized without seeing what immaculate structures surely arose from its decks. Someone should open a business and re-create one of these ships, and give little tours on it. I know I would pay big $ to see that.

Sources

   Caligula's Nemi Ships. (n.d.). Retrieved January 24, 2017, from https://www.abc.se/~pa/mar/nemships.htm

   S., Thomson, A., & Forester, T. (1887). The lives of twelve Caesars: to which are added his Lives of the grammarians, rhetoricians, and poets. London: George Bell and Sons.

Further Reading: 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caligula

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassius_Chaerea

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptoporticus

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nemi_ships

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suetonius

Also on this day:

Hadrian, Roman emperor is born 76 CE.

Special Thanks: Michael Houghan 

January 23

On This Day In Roman History, January 23

Theodosius I gives his 8-year-old son Honorius the full rank of Augustus, proclaiming the illegitimacy of Eugenius, on January 23, 393 CE. This proclamation happened at such an early time for Honorius due to the political rise of Flavius Eugenius. Eugenius was essentially a puppet Emperor to Arbogast, who elevated Eugenius to the purple in August of 392. This was done for a few reasons, with the most important being Arbogast was a Frank. Eugenius was quick to reform the political structure around him by replacing several administrators and appointing loyal family and associates to positions of power. This was true in the case of his son, Nicomachus Flavianus the Younger, who received the title "Prefect of Rome". In the end, Theodosius ended this usurpation at the Battle of the Frigidus, which concluded with Arbogast committing suicide after his defeat. Eugenius would later be held for execution, which was publically displayed at Theodosius' camp.

Did you know?

Honorius was considered one of the worst Roman Emperors of all time, in part due to the fact that under his reign Rome would be sacked for the first time in just under 800 years. This was done by the Visigoths under King Alaric. Even though Rome was no longer the capital, which at this time was located at Mediolanum, this event came as a huge cultural shock now that the "Eternal City" had fallen.

Pictured: The Western Roman Emperor Honorius, (1880) by Jean-Paul Laurens [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons.

Procopius of Caesarea, a prominent scholar in the 500's, wrote about an entertaining story regarding Honorius, quoted: "At that time they say that the Emperor Honorius in Ravenna received the message from one of the eunuchs, evidently a keeper of the poultry, that Rome had perished. And he cried out and said, 'And yet it has just eaten from my hands!' For he had a very large cock, Rome by name; and the eunuch comprehending his words said that it was the city of Rome which had perished at the hands of Alaric, and the emperor with a sigh of relief answered quickly: 'But I thought that my fowl Rome had perished.' So great, they say, was the folly with which this emperor was possessed." - Procopius, The Vandalic War (III.2.25–26). This story was believed false by author Edward Gibbon, but is still very entertaining nonetheless.

Opinion

Welcome to my daily opinion! Today it's my opinion that Honorius really was an awful Emperor, but maybe not as awful as history makes it seem. It was a crummy time to be a Roman in the Western Empire. To say that any man could have saved this sinking ship at this time is debatable. With the onslaught of the Vandals and many other germanic cultures flowing into Roman territory, the task of not just flourishing, but surviving, was nearly impossible. Also, even though many modern and non-modern historians alike view the above story quoted, as false, I just could not pass up such a hilarious tale. 

Sources 

   Carr, J. C. (2015). Fighting Emperors of Byzantium. Pen & Sword Military.

   Gibbon, E., & Low, D. M. (1960). The decline and fall of the Roman Empire. New York: Harcourt, Brace.

   Heather, P. J. (2006). The fall of the Roman Empire: a new history of Rome and the Barbarians. New York: Oxford University Press.

   Salzman, M. R. (2010). Ambrose and the usurpation of Arbogastes and Eugenius reflections on pagan-christian conflict narratives. S.l.: Johns Hopkins University Press for the North American Patristics society.

Further Reading:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodosius_I

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honorius_(emperor)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procopius

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbogast_(general)

Special Thanks: Michael Houghan

January 22

On This Day In Roman History, January 22

Constantine III is crowned co-emperor by his father, Flavius Heraclius Augustus, at the age of eight-months-old on January 22, 613 CE. His birth name was Heraclius Novus Constantinus, and he ruled under this same name but with the additional Augustus. It was only in later Byzantine texts his name was shortened to the Constantine III. Constantine was married in 629 or 630, having three children. Their youngest, a daughter named Manyanh, would later marry the last Sassanid King of Persia who was known as Yazdgerd III. 

Did you know?

While co-reigning with his half-brother, Heraklonas, he began to fall ill probably due to tuberculosis. In order to protect the rights of his children, he wrote to the army informing them of his situation. He sent along over two million solidi, or large gold coins, in order to secure his son's succession after Constantine's death, which would later occur in May of 641. 

Pictured: Cherub depicted as Seraphim and Heraclius receiving the submission of Khosrau II; plaque from a cross. Champlevé enamel over gilt copper, 1160-1170, Meuse Valley, via Wikimedia Commons.

Constantine's father was responsible for a series of peace treaties with Sassanid Persia, and aimed to reduce some of the strain between these two empires. I find Gibbons description of Constantine's father, Heraclius, memorable: "Of the characters conspicuous in history, that of Heraclius is one of the most extraordinary and inconsistent. In the first and last years of a long reign, the emperor appears to be the slave of sloth, of pleasure, or of superstition, the careless and impotent spectator of the public calamities. But the languid mists of the morning and evening are separated by the brightness of the meridian sun; the Arcadius of the palace arose the Caesar of the camp; and the honor of Rome and Heraclius was gloriously retrieved by the exploits and trophies of six adventurous campaigns. [...] Since the days of Scipio and Hannibal, no bolder enterprise has been attempted than that which Heraclius achieved for the deliverance of the empire."

Opinion

My opinion today is how crummy it probably would have been to be Manyanh in this story. Moving to Persia after essentially being sold off for political purposes, she was forced to marry Yazdgerd III. She most certainly did not know the language and probably had to muddle her way through a Greek/ Persian translator while there, if she was even afforded that luxury. The worst part was that she wouldn't have even been able to live out her life as a king's wife! Yazdgerd lost a series of battles against the Arabs and spent the end of his life fleeing, only to meet a brutal end. A contemporary recounts his death: 

"Mahui sends the miller to cut off his head on pain of losing his own, and having none of his race left alive. His chiefs hear this and cry out against him, and a Mobed of the name of Radui tells him that to kill a king or prophet will bring evil upon him and his son, and is supported in what he says by a holy man of the name of Hormuzd Kharad Shehran, and Mehronush.

The miller most unwillingly goes in and stabs him with a dagger in the middle. Mahui's horsmen all go and see him and take off his clothing and ornaments, leaving him on the ground. All the nobles curse Mahui and wish him the same fate."

Yikes.

Sources

   Gibbon, E., Lentin, A., & Norman, B. (1998). The decline and fall of the Roman Empire. Wordsworth Classics.

   Kaegi, W. E. (2003). Heraclius, emperor of Byzantium. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.

   F., & Rogers, A. (1973). The Shah-namah of Fardusi. Delhi: Heritage .

Further Reading: 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantine_III_(Byzantine_emperor)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraclius

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yazdegerd_III

Special Thanks: Michael Houghan

January 21

On This Day In Roman History, January 21

ISIS carries out a set of attacks on a Roman theater and its surrounding ruins in modern day Syria and evidence of its destruction is seen on January 20 and 21, 2017 CE.  The destruction took place in the Roman city of Palmyra, which is located in present day Tadmur, Homs Governorate, Syria. This UNESCO World Heritage Site has been threatened since 2013 and suffered substantial damage in 2015. Today I would like to examine this city, and it's historical value.

Palmyra shows evidence of being inhabited as early as the late neolithic period, and was first recorded in the second millennium BCE. Its first Hellenistic occupiers were the Seleucids, who had control of the city between 312 and 64. This came to an end with the Roman annexation of the Seleucids in 64 BCE, and was included in the Roman province of Syria. The earliest recorded Palmyrene text describing a Roman presence dates to 18 CE. During these few hundred years, the architecture became increasingly Hellenistic and boasted some truly remarkable buildings including the Baths of Diocletian and the Temple of Baalshamin. As Roman reach decreased this far eastward in the mid 200's CE, records of the Palmyrans having their own "lord" and council for government can be seen. This is recorded in a an inscription dated to 252 CE.

Did you know?

Palmyra's "re-discovery" happened in the 1600's, with the first scholarly recording dating to 1705 by author Abednego Seller. It wasn't until the 1950's when a joint Swiss/ UNESCO organized excavation began to truly reveal how much the site had to offer in a historical and archaeological context. It wasn't in until 1980 when UNESCO declared the site and its surrounding walls a world heritage site. 

Pictured: Tetrapyla in Palmyra. By High Contrast (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/de/deed.en)], via Wikimedia Commons. 

The image depicted was some of the structure confirmed lost via satellite imaging of the area. 

Opinion 

This is a tough one to read about this week. I think it is very important to remember why these things are happening, and examine the current events with a historical eye. I administrate a Facebook page on Roman and Byzantine history, and I was faced with an ethical dilemma of handling overtly hateful and violent comments on this subject. I preface my following opinion with this statement: The actions ISIS commits and the information this organization perpetrates are so backwards and wrong no other human should support them in any context. That being said, I do view this situation in the context of history; Did the Romans not sack and destroy Temple at Jerusalem in 70 CE? There are political, social, and economic factors that drive incredibly malicious action such as this. I am not pardoning these organizations and people for what they have done and what they do, but it is important to remember that demonizing races or religions will lead us nowhere. We must come together to understand how and why these events happen in order to confront and stop them. No matter where your political bias lands you, there is no denying we have lost an incredible site this week. I leave you today with an article in which the video and text lend hope. It shows native Syrians, risking their lives, in order to catalog and smuggle artifacts out of these war-torn areas. Enjoy: http://www.cnn.com/2017/01/20/middleeast/palmyra-isis-theater/#

Sources

   Andrade, N. J. (2013). Syrian identity in the Greco-Roman world. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.

   Cohen, G. M. (2006). The Hellenistic settlements in Syria, the Red Sea Basin, and North Africa. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Further Reading:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palmyra

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Syria

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrapylon

Special Thanks: Michael Houghan

January 20

On This Day In Roman History, January 20

A series of edicts created by Emperor Decius begin a time of turmoil and persecution against the Christians on January 20, 250 CE.  This time, conveniently referred to as the Decian persecution, was probably not originally aimed at Christians. It is assumed these edicts were to allow for greater unity of the Empire in terms of culture and religion. This legislation forced all citizens in the Roman Empire to preform sacrifice to the Roman Gods in front of a magistrate, who would issue a written certificate known as a libellus. This contradicted with Christian theology, and they could not preform the required sacrifice. Many Christians were forced to either flee or capitulate and preform the sacrifice, otherwise facing death. 

Did you know?

The Jews were exempted from these sacrifices in accordance to earlier policies stretching all the way back to Julius Caesar. Judaism had been recognized by Julius Caesar, and in turn Augustus, as a religio licta. This is Latin for "permitted religion", allowing for the practice of Judaism. The reason Judaism was exempted is reflected in the Roman's respect for something they considered to be so ancient. Christianity was incredibly new at this time, especially most Roman citizens, and it was viewed as such during the decision making process of these edicts. It is well known however, that several Christian communities had been coexisting peacefully within the Empire for some time. 

Pictured: Libellus from the Decian persecution 250 AD certifying that the holder has sacrificed to the Roman gods, via Wikimedia Commons.

Hundreds of surviving texts in the form of these libelli were found in Egypt. What was required and for what purpose is best summarized by historian and author D. S. Potter: "All the inhabitants of the empire were required to sacrifice before the magistrates of their community 'for the safety of the empire' by a certain day (the date would vary from place to place and the order may have been that the sacrifice had to be completed within a specified period after a community received the edict). When they sacrificed they would obtain a certificate (libellus) recording the fact that they had complied with the order.[2] That is, the certificate would testify the sacrificant's loyalty to the ancestral gods and to the consumption of sacrificial food and drink as well as the names of the officials who were overseeing the sacrifice."

Opinion

While there is no doubt the Romans knew this would adversely affect their Christian population, to assume this edict was a direct action against them religiously is a little unfair. Also, after the first year, the actions against Christians who did not want to commit to the sacrifices were taken to a much more relaxed level. Had Christianity not become the dominate religion of the Roman state, these decrees may have made a passing in history as nearly unmentioned. Sorry for the brief, late post today. A lot is going on in the United States with the inauguration of a new president, I couldn't pass up watching history unfold in front of my very eyes.

Sources

   Esler, P. F. (2000). The early Christian world. London: Routledge.

   Frend, W. H. (1984). The rise of Christianity. Philadelphia: Fortress Press.

   Potter, D. S. (2008). Emperors of Rome: the story of Imperial Rome from Julius Caesar to the last emperor. London: Quercus.

Further Reading:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decius

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decian_persecution#Requirements_of_the_Edict

Also on this day:

Gordian III, Roman emperor is born 244 CE.

Special Thanks: Michael Houghan

January 19

On This Day In Roman History, January 19 

St. Aelia Pulcheria is born in Constantinople on January 19, in either 398 or 399 CE. She was the daughter of the Eastern Roman Emperor Arcadius and daughter of Empress Aelia Eudoxia. When Arcadius and Eudoxia died in 408 and 404 respectively, their seven-year-old son Theodosius II became Emperor. During this time, a pair of praetorian prefects controlled the government in the East on behalf of Theodosius II. When Pulcheria turned 15, she assumed guardianship over her brother Theodosius. Shortly after this, for reason explained in piety, she took a vow of virginity. It can be reasoned that this motive was also based in a more practical light; a means to retain power into young adulthood. Theodosius' reign, especially during the series of conflicts with Sassanid Persia in the early 420s, was characterized by his unwillingness to accept a role of authority, which allowed and possibly caused Pulcheria to be so well respected and elevated in her position of power.

Did you know?

The people of Constantinople greatly respected Pulcheria due to her living a meager life in the suburbs and being a known philanthropist in terms of Christian donation. Modern quotes about her include: "Mention of her death in the chronicles confirms that her passing, like that of Flacilla [her grandmother], struck like an earthquake in the dynastic city. Unlike Eudocia, she lived out her life in Constantinople and its suburbs, forming a bond with its people which even death could not sever." and "in her will she reinforced that bond by instructing that all of her remaining wealth be distributed among the poor...". 

Pictured: Ivory tablet from the 5th century in Constantinople, showing a reliquary procession. By Wikipedia user Chris 73 in accordance via Wikimedia Commons.

This tablet is thought to depict Theodosius II and Pulcheria. Can you spot them? However, a more recent view on this tablet seems to think it depicts Empress Irene of the eighth century during one of her church renovations. 

Opinion 

Another powerful woman! The Roman Senate respected her so greatly they had a bust made of her in 414, titling her Augusta. Her bust was found alongside with contemporary Augusti. These powerful women of antiquity can commonly be found taking these vows of virginity that I mentioned above. While this is a religious move on the surface, the actual decision to do this was very much rooted in reality as a political tool. This would allow her to maintain power, and never have to relinquish it to a potential suitor. I find this political move interesting every time it happens, and even more interesting when they do actually get married. Pulcheria did, in fact, get married to a man named Marcian after Theodosius II death, even going as far as having the church proclaim "Christ himself sponsored the union and it therefore should not provoke shock or unjustified suspicions." This was needed so that the Roman state and public wouldn't view the marriage as anything scandalous, and perhaps take it at face value as to what it actually was; a political maneuver.

Sources

   Browning, R. (1973). Medieval Portraits from East and West. By Eleanor Duckett. Pp. 270. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1972. $10. The Journal of Ecclesiastical History, 24(04), 438. doi:10.1017/s0022046900051186

   Holum, K. G. (1982). Theodosian empresses: women and imperial dominion in late antiquity. Berkeley: University of California Press.

   Limberis, V. (1994). Divine Heiress: the Virgin Mary and the creation of Christian Constantinople. London: Routledge.

Further Reading:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulcheria#Empress

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcadius

Also on this day: 

Emperor Gratian elevates Flavius Theodosius at Sirmium to Augustus, and gives him authority over all the eastern provinces of the Roman Empire, 379 CE.

Michael III, Byzantine emperor is born in 840 CE.

Special Thanks: Michael Houghan

January 18

On This Day In Roman History, January 18

Flavius Valerius Leo Augustus, also known as Leo I, dies of dysentery on January 18, 474 CE. He reigned for 17 years and notably was the first to involve the Patriarch of Constantinople in his coronation. His reign was remembered most in terms of supporting a strict Orthodox theology, which would later lead to his admittance as a saint in the Orthodox Church. His feast day is on January 20. Upon his death, Leo's 7-year-old grandson would assume the throne. This boy, Leo II, would die 10 months later from an unknown disease. There was some speculation that he was poisoned by his mother Ariadne in order to further assist the career of her husband, Zeno. 

Did you know?

Leo appointed Anthemius as Western Roman Emperor in 467 in order to solve some of the major military conflicts both the East and West were facing. Anthemius is considered by some to be the last capable Roman Emperor of the West. He was a proven general who controlled a large professional army within Italy, which was the only way the Romans could hope to repel Gaiseric's attempt of installing a puppet Emperor on the Western throne. He also had the overwhelming task of repelling the impending Vandals. 

Pictured: The extent of the Eastern and Western Roman Empires under the reign of Leo I in 460 CE. By Tataryn77 (Own work) [CC BY-SA 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons.

Rome's withdrawal in Britain and northern Africa can be observed at this point in time, as well as a northern loss of territory due to the scourge of Atilla and other "barbarous" movement south. 

Opinion

I discussed earlier this week the Eastern Empire's folly into African territories to punish the Vandals for their sack of Rome and eventual capture of Carthage. This was done by Leo's brother-in-law Basiliscus. Due to this loss of manpower and money, the real pinch was felt originally during Leo's reign. He was also pretty unpopular due to his decree of banning all non-Christain celebrations from happening on Sunday, which really ticked off a lot of citizens living in Constantinople. For all the wrong he did do, he maintained a solid relationship with the West. It's my personal belief this really did suspend, however temporarily, the ultimate decline found there. 

Sources

   Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Volume I, Chap. XXXVI (Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc., 1952), p. 582. Bibl. Theophanes, p. 95 [ed. Par.; tom. i p. 170, ed. Bonn].

   "Anthemius". Encyclopædia Britannica online. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 2015. Retrieved 2015-08-31.

Further Reading: 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_I_the_Thracian

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthemius

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_II_(emperor)

Also on this day:

General Magnentius deposes Roman Emperor Constans and proclaims himself Emperor, 350 CE.

Publius Clodius Pulcher, Roman politician, dies in 89 BCE.

Special Thanks: Michael Houghan

January 17

On This Day In Roman History, January 17

Flavius Theodosius Augustus dies in Milan due to an edema-associated disease on January 17, 395 CE. His death would mark the end of any real claims to being the sole Emperor of the Roman Empire. A notable resultant of his death would be the separation of the Empire into the East and West. Theodosius would continue to persecute the vestiges of Roman Paganism through his "Theodosian decrees", which included barring the Altar of Victory from re-entering the Senate House, disbanded the Vestal Virgins, banning blood sacrifice, and prohibiting haruspicy. 

Did you know?

In 390 Theodosius organized and oversaw a plan to remove a 30-meter tall obelisk from Alexandria to the Eastern Capital of Constantinople. This ancient Egyptian obelisk was originally erected by Pharaoh Thutmose III some 1,860 years earlier. It is known today as the Obelisk of Theodosius and currently stands at 25.6 meters after some damage was accrued, probably during transit. The primary technology used in its movement was designed and perfected for moving massive siege equipment.

Pictured: Saint Ambrose barring Theodosius from Milan Cathedral, Anthony van Dyck, c. 1620. Oil on canvas. [Public domain or Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons. 

Theodosius was excommunicated for a massacre he committed in 390 by the bishop of Milan, Saint Ambrose. A quote from the massacre, by Theodoret, is as follows: "... the anger of the Emperor rose to the highest pitch, and he gratified his vindictive desire for vengeance by unsheathing the sword most unjustly and tyrannically against all, slaying the innocent and guilty alike. It is said seven thousand perished without any forms of law, and without even having judicial sentence passed upon them; but that, like ears of wheat in the time of harvest, they were alike cut down."  The Emperor was only re-admitted to the church only after several months of penance. 

Opinion

As much as I hate to see the last remains of Roman Paganism dismantled in history by Theodosius, many of his changes did remove what we in modern day could view as "strange" practices. This includes the barring of Haruspices from practicing, which I had briefly mentioned above. This practice is seen in the ancient near east as early as the 19th or 18th century BCE. In Etruscan culture, the practice involved divining via the entrails of a sheep or poultry. We have proof of this in the form of a bronze sculpted liver dating from around 100 BCE. While examples of this practice exist as late as 1100s, it is probably a good thing that Theodosius was getting rid of these ancient and bizarre practices, including the prohibition of blood sacrifice. But come on Theo, couldn't you have at least kept the Altar of Victory?!

Sources

   Burkert, W. (1992). The orientalizing revolution: Near Eastern influence on Greek culture in the early archaic age. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

   Habachi, L. (1984). The obelisks of Egypt: skyscrapers of the past. Cairo, Egypt: American University in Cairo Press.

   Lenski, N. E. (2002). Failure of empire: Valens and the Roman state in the fourth century A.D. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Further Reading:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodosius_I

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haruspex

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestal_Virgin

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obelisk_of_Theodosius

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thutmose_III

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodoret

Also on this day:

Octavian divorces his wife Scribonia and marries Livia Drusilla, ending the fragile peace between the Second Triumvirate and Sextus Pompey.

Special Thanks: Michael Houghan

January 16

On This Day In Roman History, January 16

The Senate convened to declare and bestow the titles of Augustus and Princeps upon Octavian on January 16, 27 BCE. By this time, the Senate proposed a ratification of Octavian's extra-constitutional power in the form of ceding several Senate controlled provinces considered too chaotic from war. These included the provinces of Hispania, Gaul, Syria, Cilicia, Cyprus, and Egypt, of which Octavian had control for a 10 year period. This put the majority of the Legions at the control of Octavian. The Senate still retained control of some provinces, including the grain producers of northern Africa. This helped Octavian, who after this point I will refer to as Augustus, maintain the facade of a republic as well as the facade of any real Senatorial power.

Did you know?

Augustus comes from the Latin word Augere, which can be translated to the phrase "meaning to increase". Augustus translates somewhat roughly as "the illustrious one". According to ancient Roman religious beliefs, the title gave a sense of mastery not over any one person, but also over nature itself. Princeps is derived from the Latin primum caput, which means"the first head". This title was first recorded for the most distinguished Senator of the time, whose name would regularly appear at the top of the Senate roster list. 

Pictured: Bust of Augustus, wearing the Civic Crown. Glyptothek, Munich. [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons.

The Civic Crown, was the second highest military decoration a citizen could receive, behind the Grass Crown. The Civic Crown, or Latin corona civica, is made of oak leaves woven in the form of a chaplet crown. Pliny the Elder, a Roman author, wrote extensively on the crown saying: "The receiver of the wreath may wear it for the rest of his life; when he appears at the games it is the custom for even the senate always to rise at his entrance, and he has the right to sit next to the senators; and he himself and his father and his paternal grandfather are exempt from all public duties."

Opinion

I know I have touched before on what the title "The First Citizen" means to Roman culture, and how important it was for Augustus to maintain this facade in the public's eye. This man of the people controlled near absolute power both politically and militarily, but went to great lengths to create a "rubber stamp Senate". The only thing I find more amazing than Augustus' rise to power was his ability to stay there for the rest of his life, which was done by maintaining these mentioned facades. His dictatorship, while taken by force and popularity, was masked as a dictatorship via plebiscite in these ways and his mastery of such politics cannot be denied.

Sources

   Eck, W., Schneider, D. L., & Takács, S. A. (2003). The age of Augustus. Malden, MA: Blackwell.

   Smith, W., Wayte, W., & Marindin, G. E. (1890). A dictionary of Greek and Roman antiquities. London: J. Murray.

   P., & Radice, B. (1969). The letters of the younger Pliny. Harmondsworth, Eng.: Penguin Books.

Further Reading: 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustus

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grass_Crown

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder

Also on this day:

The Ostrogoths conquer Rome by bribing the Isaurian garrison. 550 CE

Special Thanks: Michael Houghan

January 15

On This Day In Roman History, January 15

Marcus Salvius Otho excuses himself after a visit with Emporer Galba to incite a group of Praetorian Guard on the morning of January 15, 69 CE. When Otho found himself at the Praetorian camp, he was saluted as Imperator due to his notions of increasing the soldiers pay and personally bribing a group of about 23 soldiers. As Galba made his way through a crowded section of street near the Lacus Curtius, he was attacked by Otho's paid cavalrymen. Galba reportedly stood to meet the charge but was quickly overwhelmed and killed. He was famously quoted by Plutarch as stating: "Strike, if it be for the good of the Romans!" 

Did you know?

A notable centurion who was a member of the Praetorian Guard named Sempronius Densus bravely stood by the assaulted Galba at the time of the attack. Plutarch made an interesting mention of him as quoting:

   "No man resisted or offered to stand up in his defence, save one only, a centurion, Sempronius Densus, the single man among so many thousands that the sun beheld that day act worthily of the Roman empire, who, though he had never received any favour from Galba, yet out of bravery and allegiance endeavoured to defend the litter. First, lifting up his switch of vine, with which the centurions correct the soldiers when disorderly, he called aloud to the aggressors, charging them not to touch their emperor. And when they came upon him hand-to-hand, he drew his sword, and made a defence for a long time, until at last he was cut under the knees and brought to the ground."

Pictured Left: Portrait of M. Silvius Otho, 17th-century engraving by Robert van Voerst. [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons.

I've chosen an interesting depiction of Otho simply because I am enthralled with the ways people view historical figures within their own time period. This 17th-century engraving shows him in a regal style reflecting the gravitas of the man, but also interestingly displays a style of armor common only to the time the engraving was made. This is a common motif found within art when examining it with a historical context and is even somewhat true today; we like to depict what we find familiar so it's easier to describe in a "modern" way. 

Opinion 

My opinion section was starting to leak into the paragraph above, so I thought I better cut myself off and start this one. It is always so interesting to me to see how artists are depicting these Roman greats. They almost always love to throw in some type of callback to their current times, and while it wasn't directly out of ignorance to the historical context or undereducation, these items probably had some influence in the decision of depiction. I think it is more of a "we love to see what we know" type of deal, and even today I notice this happening in depictions of Romans inside, and even outside of, popular culture.

Sources

   S., Graves, R., Grant, M., & MacCormack, S. (2001). Lives of the twelve Caesars. New York: Welcome Rain.

 Rasmussen, S. W. (2003). Public portents in republican Rome. Rome: L'Erma di    Bretschneider.Wellesley, K., & Wellesley, K. (2000). The year of the four emperors. London: Routledge.

Further Reading:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otho

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galba

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacus_Curtius

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sempronius_Densus

Special Thanks: Michael Houghan

January 14

On This Day In Roman History, January 14

The Roman politician and general Marcus Antonius is born in Rome on January 14, 83 BCE. This man would go on to play a pivotal role in the transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire. At his political precipice he would serve as a Proconsul, also serving notable Consulships in 34 and 44 BCE. He would later fight many key battles against the Liberators and commence a successful campaign against Parthia. He took his own life in August of 30 BCE, after realizing any hope against Octavian was gone.

Did you know?

Antony had 5 wives and 8 known children. These wives included two women with little historical reference by the names of Fadia, who was shortly succeeded by Antonia Hybrida Minor. From 46 to 40 he was married to Fluvia whom most notably was the first non-mythical woman to appear on a roman coin. Octavia the Younger, married to Marcus from 40 to 32, was the niece of Julius Caesar and daughter of the less famous Gaius Octavius (proconsul). His final wife Cleopatra would find her demise also at the will of Augustus. 

Pictured left: A bust of Mark Antony currently within the Vatican City. 

M_Antonius.jpg: Amadscientist derivative work: DanieleDF1995 (M_Antonius.jpg) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

Happy Birthday Marcus! 

Opinion

Marc Antony's appeal to modern culture can be seen most commonly depicted and found within his love story with Cleopatra. The story they interweave is enthralling and can be easily romanticized by not only modern pop-culture, but through any historical lens as well. I tend to view their romance for what it appears to be in historical context; a political maneuver for Cleopatra and a romance for Marc. Unfortunately for Cleopatra, even if she did love Mr. Antony, she backed the wrong horse in the race for imperial supremacy. As she observed the rise of Augustus into his sole mastership of Rome, she made one last desperate attempt at the man in a way that had brought her so much previous success: love. This time however, it would fail. You don't need to take my opinion for it, as they have an entire (massive) wikipedia page dedicated to their relationship to serve as proof of just how obsessed we are with them. I tried to think of a witty couple name for them like CleAntony or something, but instead I'll just leave you with the link. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antony_and_Cleopatra

Sources 

   P., & Pelling, C. B. (1988). Life of Antony. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

   Skeat, T. C. (1953). The Last Days of Cleopatra : A Chronological Problem. Journal of Roman Studies, 43(1-2), 98-100. doi:10.2307/297786

Further Reading:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Antony

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fulvia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octavia_the_Younger

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaius_Octavius_(proconsul)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleopatra

January 13

On This Day In Roman History, January 13

The populace of Constantinople gathers en masse at the Hippodrome for a series of races that would result in the Nika riots on January 13, 532 CE. In earlier Roman and Byzantine history, several well-developed teams known as demes competed in the form of chariot racing. These teams had four colors including the Blues, the Reds, the Whites, and the Greens. In the recent times of 532, only two teams had any real influence; the Greens and the Blues. On this day, the race result put a frenzied crowd out of control, and the so-called Nika riots began. City-wide fires would burn down many notable buildings, most importantly destroying the Hagia Sophia. A five-day siege over the imperial palace would later cause Justinian to rally against mainly the Greens in order to put down the riots -- ultimately resulting in 30,000 killed. 

Did you know?

Constantine I preferred chariot racing to the somewhat more violent games of gladiatorial combat. He saw this combat as a vestige of old paganism and began to reshape the public's view of both events. During this time in the early 300s the popularity of these sports, most notably in the eastern half of the empire, saw a shift to favor racing over combat. 

Pictured left: The observed ruins of the Hippodrome as seen in the 1600's, but may be based off a drawing from the early 14th century. 

By nieznani, rycina z XVI/XVII w (internet) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

Opinion

While we might not experience riots to the size and degree that Constantinople did, we still see sport-related riots in the modern world. Just last week I watched a fight between two NFL fans on Twitter, with one ending up unconscious. A notable mention is the Port Said Stadium riots that resulted in 74 deaths which took place in Egypt during the 2012 season of the Egyptian Premier League. It is not often an event in antiquity well over a thousand years old can be so closely connected to modern day life in a very understandable way.

Sources

   Bassett, S. (2004). The urban image of late antique Constantinople. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

   Justinian and the nike riots. (n.d.). Retrieved January 13, 2017, from http://cliojournal.wikispaces.com/Justinian and the nike riots

Further Reading: 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nika_riots

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hippodrome_of_Constantinople

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagia_Sophia

http://cliojournal.wikispaces.com/Justinian+and+the+nike+riots

Special Thanks: Michael Houghan

January 12

On This Day In Roman History, January 12

Basiliscus is crowned Emperor of the Byzantine Empire in the Hebdomon Palace on January 12, 475 CE. Flavius Basiliscus Augustus came to power during a civil revolt which had previously forced Emperor Zeno the Isaurian out of Constantinople. Emperor Zeno was an unpopular leader with the people, often dubbed the "barbarian" successor to Leo. Writing by John of Antioch considered Basiliscus to be the uncle of Odoacer, but scholars tend to be skeptical of this since Basiliscus' foreign origins are a mystery.

Did you know?

Basiliscus was chosen to lead a military expedition against the Vandals, who were currently based out of Carthage at the time. This operation reportedly consisted of some 10,000 ships and 100,000 soldiers. The basis of the attack was to punish the Vandal king, Geiseric, for his earlier sacking of Rome in 455. Another reason for outcry against Geiseric was his actions against the Empress Licinia Eudoxia, who had been taken hostage during this sack of Rome. 

Pictured Left: Cape Bon, in modern Tunisia, is the place where the Roman fleet led by Basiliscus landed to launch an attack upon the Vandal capital of Carthage By Fourat (http://www.panoramio.com/photo/4449570) [CC BY 3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons

In this assault at Cape Bon in 468, the Vandals negotiated with Basiliscus, asking for five days' time to come to some type of peace talks. During one of the negotiations, a surprise Vandal attack at sea surprised the Romans. The Vandals had control of the Imperial Roman fleet in Carthage and used it against the Romans by filling several of these ships with combustible material, essentially creating fire ships to surprise and overwhelm the Basiliscus' forces. 

Opinion

Welcome to my daily opinion. First off, I would like to point out that the Vandals are in Africa. That's a crazy enough fact on its own, and quite a bit of walking on the Vandals part. I also found it interesting that the Eastern Romans even felt it necessary to take such actions against a now stagnant Vandal Kingdom, but would later not be bothered to march back on a foreign controlled Rome. The picture at this time was obviously less clear cut than this, but such an expensive expedition to punish the Vandal King, which costed some 64,000 pounds of gold and 700,000 pounds of silver, seems a bit frivolous to me personally. It could be considered even more frivolous considering Basiliscus had his rear end handed to him. That's all I have for today, and am excited to have made it through the first week of my posts. Only 51 more weeks left!

Sources

   Gordon, C. D. (1960). The age of Attila: fifth-century Byzantium and the Barbarians. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

   Merrills, A. H. (2004). Vandals, Romans and Berbers: new perspectives on late antique North Africa. Burlington, VT: Ashgate.

   Ostrogorski, G. (1969). History of the Byzantine state. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

Further Reading: 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basiliscus

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandal_Kingdom

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Cap_Bon_(468)

Special Thanks: Michael Houghan

January 11

On This Day In Roman History, January 11

Theodora Porphyrogenita becomes sole Empress on January 11, 1055 CE. She was the last of the Macedonian dynasty, which stretched back to Basil I (ruling 867–886). Theodora's early life as an imperial princess destined her for marriage to the Emperor of The Holy Roman Empire, Otto III. However, Theodora's sister Zoe was later favored and chosen by Otto III for marriage. Otto died shortly before the marriage during a hunting accident.  Theodora lived several years in political obscurity until a series of events rendered her in line for the purple. Both Basil II (uncle) and her father had no sons, forcing Theodora quickly into the political spotlight. Her father, Constantine VIII, arranged a marriage with Romanos Argyros to succeed him. Theodora declined, stating that Romanos already had a wife, who conveniently had recently become a nun, allowing him to marry into the imperial family. After this decision, Zoe became the wife Romanos and convinced him to place a spy over Theodora. Shortly thereafter, she was allegedly found to be plotting to usurp the throne with a man named Presian of Bulgaria. Theodora was not condemned, but later in 1031 charges were brought against her in another conspiracy, which resulted in her being forcibly held in the monastery of Petrion. During this time, Zoe's husband died causing her to re-marry Michael IV. After his death, Zoe adopted Michael's nephew (Michael V), who promised to respect her authority. Against his word, however, Michael V banished Zoe on a charge of attempted regicide. This spurred a popular uprising in Constantinople due to the disposal of a legitimate heir of the Macedonian Dynasty. The popular assembly stormed the imperial palace and proclaimed both Theodora and Zoe as Empress. After Zoe's death, Theodora would reign as sole Empress from 1050–1055.

Did you know?

As Constantine IX laid dying, he implored his logothetes tou dromou, or Postal Logothete, to ignore the rights of Theodora and instead allow the doux of Bulgaria to inherit the throne. This plan was foreseen by Theodora who, despite her age, asserted her right to rule. She took even further measure in the form of a covenant, convening the imperial guard allowing them to proclaim her "emperor". 

Pictured Left: Depiction on Empress Theodora on the Monomachus Crown. By anonimous [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons.

Via Wikipedia: "The Monomachus Crown (Hungarian: Monomakhosz-korona) is a piece of engraved Byzantine goldwork, decorated with cloisonné enamel, in the Hungarian National Museum in Budapest, Hungary. It consists of seven gold plates depicting Byzantine Emperor Constantine IX Monomachus, his wife Zoe, her sister Theodora, two dancers and two allegorical figures. The piece has puzzling aspects that have long made it the subject of scholarly debate; it was probably made in Constantinople in 1042."

Opinion

Welcome to my daily opinion. I had a few options today for an event, including the Nika riots and the birth of Theodosius I. That being said,  I felt it most appropriate to discuss Theodora and her story. It is a rare occurrence in Roman history to be able to discuss such a powerful woman. I think it is also very important to remember that it's rare not because women were somehow sitting on their hands for thousands of years of Roman history, but because Roman culture was simply very patriarchal. In my opinion, this adds even more credibility and proof that when a woman does rise to power in Roman culture, she absolutely deserves to be there. Women become more prevalent in roles of power in later Byzantine history, as the old remains of extreme Roman patriarchy slowly subside. I also believe countless unnamed woman exercised high amounts of both political and personal power at all times within Roman history, even if the writings of the time do not reflect this. It's always crucial to remember who is writing the history, and to understand it contextually as far as culture is concerned. We must remember that Romans lived in a male dominated culture.

Sources

   Garland, L. (1999). Byzantine empresses: women and power in Byzantium, AD 527-1204. London: Routledge.
   Psellus, M., & Sewter, E. R. (1953). The Chronographia. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Further Reading:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodora_(11th_century)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logothetes_tou_dromou
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monomachus_Crown

Special thanks: Michael Houghan

January 10

On This Day In Roman History, January 10

Julius Caesar leads Legio XIII Gemina across the Rubicon River on January 10, 49 BCE. This movement went against the direction of the Senate which just three days prior issued a Senatus consultum ultimum, which called for the return of Caesar to the capital. The Senate wished to try Caesar for alleged war crimes and multiple instances of corruption. This action set in motion The Great Roman Civil War, which took place between 49 and 45 BCE. Caesar by this time had been evading legal action taken against him legally in the form of political immunity via his proconsulship. As his legal immunity was coming to an eventual conclusion, and realizing the SCU against him would certainly mean his demise if he returned to Rome, he knew what action must be taken to preserve his power and life. At the crossing of the Rubicon, one source most famously quoted Caesar as stating "Alea iacta est", most commonly translated to English as "The die is cast". 

Did you know?

The Senate feared Caesar to be at the head of many more troops than the single Legion headed towards Rome. Pompey fearing the same stated, "Rome cannot be defended" and retreated. These actions were later characterized by Cicero as an "outward sign of weakness", and would lead to an easy start to Caesar's dictatorship. 

Pictured left: Column of Julius Caesar, where he addressed his army to march on Rome and start the Civil War. 

By: Georges Jansoone (JoJan) (Own work (own photo)) [GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html) or CC BY-SA 4.0-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0)], via Wikimedia Commons

This Column of Julius Caesar can be found in modern day Rimini, Italy. After this point, Caesar would continue to march towards Brundisium in pursuit of Pompey, who was leading some 11,500 soldiers south. The Optimates plan was to head Caesar off from Etruria in the direction of the Adriatic coast. When this would eventually fail, an estimated 3 Legions would surrender. They were both isolated from any reinforcement and trapped without means of escape, joining and assimilating into Caesar's ranks.

Opinion

Welcome to my daily opinion. What an exciting day! This is the start of some of the most momentous Roman history there is. It would soon shape the Roman world for the rest of its existence, and there would be no turning back from its eventual conclusion in the form of the Principate. My opinion today is that this war could have ended in its most early stages during Caesar's crossing the Rubicon. Armies win battles, but intelligence wins wars. If the Optimates forces simply had the knowledge of what Caesar was bringing with him during the march on Rome, even a levied senate force combined with Pompey's legions could have probably stopped Caesar early. In the coming days and months, we will probably often jump back into this time frame, seeing as a magnitude of historical days are about to take place. I look forward to discussing specific battles and my opinions on them in the coming weeks. 

Sources

   Andrews, E. A., Freund, W., Lewis, C. T., & Short, C. (1980). A Latin dictionary founded on Andrews' edition of Freund's Latin dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

   Kohn, G. C. (1986). Dictionary of wars. New York, NY: Facts on File.

   P., & Rouse, W. H. (1900). Life of Caesar. London: Blackie.

Further Reading:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesar%27s_Civil_War

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alea_iacta_est

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimini

Special Thanks: Michael Houghan 

January 9

On This Day In Roman History, January 9

Emporer Zeno of The Byzantine Empire is forced to flee Constantinople on January 9, 475 CE. His reign had come to a somewhat abrupt, but temporary, end; both from a series of revolts that took place in Thrace and later revolts in Constantinople, resulting in his fleeing from the capital. Flavius Basiliscus Augustus, or more commonly referred to as Basiliscus, seized power during this turbulent time. He would soon alienate both the citizens of Constantinople as well as the church, and due to the appointment of men loyal to his cause to high-ranking positions, would later lose key support within the royal court. 

Did you know?

Emporer Zeno was alive to witness the fall of the Western Roman Empire. During this time, Romulus Augustus was overthrown by Odoacer, who I briefly mentioned yesterday. He is also credited with stabilizing the Eastern Roman Empire/ Byzantine Empire during this time, after regaining power following the failed conspiracy to overthrow him. 

Pictured left: Zeno depicted on a Tremissis; the coin's design celebrates Zeno's victories, and was issued during his second reign. Coin description: Zeno AV Tremissis. Constantinople mint, Second Reign, 476-491 AD.

-D N ZENO PERP AVG, diademed, draped and cuirassed bust right

-VICTORIA AVGVSTORVM, Victory walking right, head left, holding wreath & globus cruciger, star in right field, CONOB in ex. [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons 

Opinion

Welcome to my daily opinion. One of the more interesting facts I learned studying Zeno was that he actually recaptured the throne after his initial disposal. The crazy part is, Zeno held power for another 15 years after this initial coup, up until his death of either dysentery of epilepsy. During this secondary reign, Augustus was forced to abdicate the crown. Historians love to mark this day as the fall of the Western Roman Empire, but this is not entirely true in the reality of everyday life. In fact, daily life was still going on for many years in these western Roman cities, undisturbed. The senate wrote to Zeno during this time "the majesty of a sole monarch is sufficient to pervade and protect, at the same time, both the East and the West". Zeno refrained from accepting power, stating the legal rule of Nepos was valid, but of course didn't defer the Imperial symbol brought to him by the senate. Probably wise to not get involved in a clearly unsalvageable situation, even if it wasn't immediately evident just how dire the west's situation was. That's all for today, I am excited to cross the Rubicon tomorrow! 

Sources

   Gibbon, E., & Low, D. M. (1960). The decline and fall of the Roman Empire. New York: Harcourt, Brace.

   Mitchell, S. (2005). A history of the later roman empire, AD 284-622: the transformation of the ancient world. Oxford: Blackwell.

   Ostrogorski, G. (1969). History of the Byzantine state. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

Further Reading:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeno_(emperor)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romulus_Augustulus

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basiliscus