Thursday, March 30, 2017

March 29

On This Day In Roman History, March 29

King Gundobad releases a compilation of laws in a text known as the Lex Burgundionum on March 29, This proclamation was greatly influenced by Roman law and looked to define a wide set of rules and codes having to due widely with domestic laws. This document is not to be confused with the similarly named Lex Romana Burgundionum which directly takes several laws from Roman sources. This text influenced the Burgundian Kingdom which was one of the oldest Germanic kingdoms ever, coming to fruition in the mid 5th-century.

Did you know?

Laws for land being passed down, like so many other laws found within this text, are based on the strict and ancient belief systems of the Germanic Burgundians that invented them. This only allowed land to be passed down through strict hand-offs within families. This succession was common for many other aspects of handling property ownership.

Pictured: Saint Sigismund. Detail from: Sigismondo Pandolfo Malatesta praying in front of St. Sigismondo. By Piero della Francesca, 1451. Photograph by Georges Jansoone, via Wikimedia Commons. 

Sigismund was the son of King Gundobad and may have directly contributed to the writing of these laws. It is unknown exactly how much influence either had in the writing of these laws, but it is assumed both had a large role in their compilations.

Today's quote is a translated set of laws from the mentioned text: "23. If a person provides someone with weapons where strife arises, but1
 he does no harm, let him pay
with 6 shillings.
23.1. If highway robbery should be done, let him [i.e., the one who provided the weapons] pay with
6 shillings.
23.2. If a person kills that man [who is being robbed] let him [i.e., the one who provided the
weapons] pay with 20 shillings.
24. If a person kills someone, let him pay an ordinary person-price, 100 shillings.
24.1. If a person kills someone, let him pay 20 shillings at the open grave, and let him pay the entire
person[-price] in 40 nights.
24.2. If the killer departs from the land, let his kinsmen pay a half person[-price].
25. If a person binds a freeman, let him pay [with] 20 shillings.
26. If a person kills a freeman’s loaf-eater,2
 let him pay with 6 shillings.
27. If [a person] kills a freedman3
 of the first rank, let him pay [with] 80 shillings.
27.1. If he kills [one of] that second [rank], let him pay with 60 shillings.
27.2. [For one of] that third [rank], let him pay with 40 shillings.
28. If a freeman breaks into an enclosure,4
 let him pay with 6 shillings.
28.1. If a person takes property therein, let that man pay 3[–fold] as compensation. 

Opinion

Welcome to my daily opinion! Slowly but surely I will catch up! Here is a late post from yesterday, I hope to actually fill out this section sometime later today! 

Sources

   Drew, K. F., & Lear, F. S. (1963). Perspectives in medieval history. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
   Drew, K. F. (1996). The Burgundian code: book of constitutions or law of Gundobad, additional enactments. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
   Hoyt, R. S. (1993). Life and thought in the early Middle Ages. Ann Arbor, MI: UMI Books on Demand.

Further Reading: 
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Tuesday, March 28, 2017

March 28

On This Day In Roman History, March 28

Publius Helvius Pertinax Augustus has his reign come to an end after he is assassinated by the Praetorian Guard on March 28, 193 CE. Pertinax's rule happens during the Year of the Five Emperors and concludes with the Severan dynasty. Things had been going downhill for Pertinax near the end of his rule and he narrowly thwarted a conspiracy to replace him in early March of 193. Pertinax had been cracking down on the "spoiled" Praetorians, instilling discipline and cutting some of their bonuses. This would ultimately lead to his downfall and by the end of March some two to three hundred guards headed to the Imperial Palace to meet Pertinax. With ample time to flee, he denied the opportunity and instead confronted the large group soldiers. After a discussion, he was finally struck down by an unnamed soldier.

Did you know?

Pertinax realized how dangerous his position as Emperor would be and this can be found in the fact he chose not to bestow Imperial titles upon his family. This included his wife and son, both of whom survived the assassination and went on to live in some obscurity. Pertinax's father in law, Titus Flavius Claudius Sulpicianus, was named the prefect of the city of Rome. He would go on to attempt to be Emperor after Pertinax, but after backing the wrong horse found himself tried and executed in 197 under Septimius Severus. 

Pictured: Pertinax as found in the Vatican Museums, Rome. Photo by Egisto Sani, via Creative Commons. 

Today's selected quote comes from Dio's a Roman History, Book LXXIV: "Pertinax was an excellent and upright man, but he ruled only a very short time, and was then put out of the way by the soldiers. While the fate of Commodus still remained a secret, the followers of Laetus and Eclectus came to him and informed him what had been done; for because of his excellence and his rank they were glad to choose him. And he, after seeing them and hearing their story, sent his most trustworthy companion to view the body of Commodus. When this man had confirmed the report of the deed, Pertinax than betook himself secretly to the camp. At first his arrival caused the soldiers alarm; but thanks to the presence of Laetus' adherents and to the offers that Pertinax made (he promised to give them twelve thousand sesterces apiece), he won them over. Indeed, they would have remained perfectly quiet, had he not in closing his speech made some such remark as this: "There are many distressing circumstances, fellow-soldiers, in the present situation; but the rest with your help shall be set right again." On hearing this, they suspected that all the privileges granted them by Commodus in violation of precedent would be abolished, and they were displeased; nevertheless, they remained quiet, concealing their anger. On leaving the camp, he came to the senate-house while it was still night, and after greeting us, so far as it was possible for anyone to approach him in the midst of such a jostling throng, he said off-hand: "I have been named emperor by the soldiers; however, I do not want the office and shall resign it at once, this very day, because of my age and feeble health, and because of the distressing state of affairs." This was no sooner said than we gave him our genuine approbation and chose him in very truth; for he was not only most noble in spirit but also strong in body, except that he suffered from a slight impediment in walking by reason of his feet."

Opinion

Welcome to my daily opinion! I am alive but still sick, just happy to finally be OK enough to write some posts! I will slowly attempt to make up the posts I have missed over the course of the next week. With that out of the way, I think that is one of the biggest selected quotes I have used during my time posting! It really does give a good insight into the man that was Pertinax. How could you be so smart about overthrowing Commodus but then fail to financially back the authority that gave you power in Rome, Pertinax?! I guess hind-sight is 20/20, but, for real, he had to have some serious cajones to stare down a few hundred disgruntled guards. This will mark the beginning of a period recognized by its instability, which I will be discussing at some length in the coming months. I hope to have a dedicated post at the conclusion of the Year of the Five Emperors. Thanks for bearing with me during my illness! 

Sources

   Hohl, E., & Samberger, C. (1997). Scriptores historiae Avgvstae. Stutgardiae: Teubner.
   Mennen, I. (2011). Power and status in the Roman Empire, AD 193-284. Leiden: Brill.
   T., & Heather, P. (2001). Politics, philosophy, and empire in the fourth century: select orations of Themistius. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press.

Further Reading:
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Monday, March 27, 2017

March 25

On This Day In Roman History, March 25

The Byzantine Emperor Theodosius III resigns his throne in order to enter the clergy on March 25, 717 CE.

This post will be updated on 5/28/17. Or maybe never sorry lol 
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Friday, March 24, 2017

March 24

On This Day In Roman History, March 24

A day appears on the Roman calendar with the mark "QRFC" which denotes a meeting of the Comitia Calata on March 24. This group was a non-voting body known as a comitia. Their primary duties included inaugurating the rex, rex sacrorum, or the flamines, depending on the time period. The group met under the supervision of college of the pontiffs and pontifex maximus. The German classical scholar, Theodor Mommsen, noted that the QRFC that appeared was most likely denoting "Q. Rex C. F." or "Quando Rex Comitiavit Fas". 

Did you know?

Another primary function of the group, specifically on March 24, was to listen and sanction the reading of wills. Another important function was presiding over the legal matter of a person passing from one gens to the other via adoption. The priests would perform a ceremony known as the detestatio sacrorum where the new family member was required to acknowledge all spiritual duties that they would now perform within the new family. 

Pictured: The remains of the Fasti Praenestini which denoted the QRFC I spoke about earlier. March was the first month during the 10-month Legendary calendar, and thus had many Mars-centric holidays and practices associated within it. Other denotions including F for fastus, C for comitialis, N for nefastus, and EN for endotercissus.

Today's selected quote is from the mentioned author, Theodor Mommsen, in his book The History of Rome: "The distinction between ancient and modern history, therefore, is no mere accident, nor yet a mere matter of chronological convenience. What is called modern history is in reality the formation of a new cycle of culture, connected at several epochs of its development with the perishing or perished civilization of the mediterranean states, as that was connected with the primitive civilization of the Indo-Germanic stock, but destined, like that earlier cycle, to traverse an orbit of its own. It too is destined to experience in full measure the vicissitudes of national weal and woe, period of growth, of full vigour, and of age, the blessedness of creative effort, in religion, polity, and art, the comfort of enjoying the material and intellectual acquisitions it has won, perhaps also, some day, the decay of productive power in the satiety of contentment with the goal attained. But that goal too will only be temporary: the grandest system of civilization has its orbit, and may complete its course; but not so the human race, to which, even when it seems to have attained its goal, the old task is ever set anew with a wider range and with a deeper meaning."

There will be no opinion section today due to work me enjoying Friday off. See you Saturday! 
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Thursday, March 23, 2017

March 23

On This Day In Roman History, March 23

On the last day of Quinquatria, a ceremony known as Tubilustrium takes place on March 23. I talked about Quinquatria when it starts on March 19, and will now look to dive a little deeper on this last day ceremony. During Tubilustrium, generals looked to the armies in order to prepare them for war or a campaign. March classically marked the beginning of campaign season for early Rome and the festival retained this purpose even after Rome started participating in military campaigns year-round. A trademark event for this ceremony was the playing of ceremonial trumpets known in Latin as tubae. The event was held within a building in Rome known as the atrium sutorium, or the Hall of the Shoemakers. It concluded with the sacrifice of a ewe lamb and the Salii parading through the streets.

Did you know?

This ceremony followed in line with Quinquatria by celebrating the Roman God Mars and a lesser known Sabine goddess sometimes referred to as Nerine. Another interesting fact is that the site of the atrium sutorium has been lost to time and is unknown. The building itself probably has connections to shoe manufacture or trade and was probably demolished and covered up, therefore transforming it into a forum area. 

Pictured: Mars wearing a breastplate, Ancient Roman bronze figurine, origins traced to Gaul. Photo by Marie-Lan Nguyen, via Wikimedia Commons. 

Today's selected quote is from Cato that was found within his book on farming tips. He prescribes a promise to be made with Mars in order to keep cattle safe: "Make an offering to Mars Silvanus in the forest (in silva) during the daytime for each head of cattle: 3 pounds of meal, 4½ pounds of bacon, 4½ pounds of meat, and 3 pints of wine. You may place the viands in one vessel, and the wine likewise in one vessel. Either a slave or a free man may make this offering. After the ceremony is over, consume the offering on the spot at once. A woman may not take part in this offering or see how it is performed. You may vow the vow every year if you wish."

Opinion

Welcome to my daily opinion! I ran into an interesting distinction on the Latin terms tubae vs tubi. The 20th-century theologian and scholar, Johannes Quasten, seems to think the difference is only that tubae are used during military preparation and tubi used during sacrificial ceremonies. This comes right back to how nit-picky some of this Roman religious jargon can be and how just downright confusing some its practices are. Take a moment and be happy Farmer's Almanacs today are based off observable trends and science; those to learn from Ovid were not nearly as lucky.

Sources

   Fowler, W. W. (1899). The roman festivals of the period of the Republic: an introduction to the study of the religion of Romans. London: Macmillan.
   Richardson, L. (1995). A new topographical dictionary of ancient Rome. Baltimore: John Hopkins Univ. Press.
   Sears, G. (2015). Written space in the Latin West, 200 BC to AD 300. London: Bloomsbury.

Further Reading: 
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Wednesday, March 22, 2017

March 22

On This Day In Roman History, March 22

Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus Africanus and his son Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus Africanus Augustus are proclaimed Emperor on March 22, 238 CE. The two Emperors, more commonly known as Gordian I and Gordian II, were only in power for exactly three weeks. These two make up a series known as the Year of the Six Emperors. This proclamation came after the rebellious leader, Maximinus Thrax, seized a large portion of power and a revolt against him started in North Africa in January, 238. Gordian II, attached to his father due to old age and health concerns, died at the Battle of Carthage. After Gordian I heard the news, he took his own life. 

Did you know?

Even though Gordian I and II were defeated in the first rebellion against Thrax, a third man would find success later in 238. This nephew of Gordian II was recognized as Emperor and ending the Year of the Six Emperors. He was granted the title Marcus Antonius Gordianus Pius Augustus by the Senate and would rule until 244. 

Pictured: Portrait of Gordian I. Marble, Roman artwork, 220–230 CE. Photo by Wikipedia user Jastrow, via Wikimedia Commons. 

Today's selected quote is yet again from Gibbon. He describes how Gordian I at first objected ruling due to old age, but eventually accepted the responsibility and the cognomen Africanus: "An iniquitous sentence had been pronounced against some opulent youths of [Africa], the execution of which would have stripped them of far the greater part of their patrimony. (…) A respite of three days, obtained with difficulty from the rapacious treasurer, was employed in collecting from their estates a great number of slaves and peasants blindly devoted to the commands of their lords, and armed with the rustic weapons of clubs and axes. The leaders of the conspiracy, as they were admitted to the audience of the procurator, stabbed him with the daggers concealed under their garments, and, by the assistance of their tumultuary train, seized on the little town of Thysdrus, and erected the standard of rebellion against the sovereign of the Roman empire. (...) Gordianus, their proconsul, and the object of their choice [as emperor], refused, with unfeigned reluctance, the dangerous honour, and begged with tears that they should suffer him to terminate in peace a long and innocent life, without staining his feeble age with civil blood. Their menaces compelled him to accept the Imperial purple, his only refuge indeed against the jealous cruelty of Maximin (...)."

Opinion 

Welcome to my daily opinion! I didn't want to give too much away about the Battle of Carthage (238) because its only three weeks away! I am also happy to announce that's the most ridiculous opening line I have ever written during the three months I have been making these posts. For anyone who likes civil wars, this is the time period for you. If you are unfamiliar, I have skipped mentioning both Pupienus and Balbinus, the Emperors that come between Gordian II and Gordian III because they too will have their dates in history. I mainly just feel bad for Gordian I, who died at the age of 79 and outlived his son, simply because power was forced upon him during civil strife. He almost made it through a full career within what is Roman juggernautut power-politics; where making mistakes doesn't just cause you to lose your office, but one also usually pays with his life. 

Sources

   Blois, L. D. (2001). Administration, prosopography and appointment policies in the Roman empire: proceedings of the first workshop of the international network Impact of Empire (Roman Empire, 27 B.C. - A.D. 406), Leiden, June 28 - July 1, 2000. Amsterdam: Gieben.
   Magie, D., O'Brien-Moore, A., & Ballou, S. H. (1922). The Scriptores historiae Augustae. London: W. Heinemann.
   Potter, D. S. (2014). The Roman Empire at bay: AD 180-395. London: Routledge.

Further Reading:
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Tuesday, March 21, 2017

March 21

On This Day In Roman History, March 21

The Byzantine Emperor Flavius Heraclius Augustus returns the Christian relic known as the True Cross to Jerusalem on March 21, 630 CE. Heraclius was faced with a growing military power in early 629, as the prophet Muhammad succeeded in unifying all nomadic tribes within the Arabian Peninsula. Together, these unified tribes and coalitions of people were now powerful enough to evoke Heraclius on a campaign against them later that same year. Fighting began in September of 629 as power was forcefully switched from an Arab ambassador to a Ghassanid-Roman governor. As Heraclius approached the capital city of Khosrau, Arab forces fled without a fight. A recently freed local Persian leader from within the city offered the True Cross with his personal peace negotiator, hoping to use it as a sign of good will. Emperor Heraclius then paraded the relic through the Empire for the year, eventually returning it to Jerusalem.

Did you know?

Heraclius is the only Roman Emperor to be discussed at any length in Arab histories. He is also mentioned in the Qur'an alongside some descriptions of his wars. In Surah 30 of the Qur'an, we can find a description of the Roman - Sassanid wars: "2 The Romans have been defeated 3 In the nearest land. But they, after their defeat, will overcome. 4 Within several years. To Allah belongs the command before and after. And that day the believers will rejoice 5 In the victory of Allah. He gives victory to whom He wills, and He is the Exalted in Might, the Merciful."

Pictured: One of the largest purported fragments of the True Cross is at Santo Toribio de Liébana in Spain. Photo by F. J. Díez Martín, via Wikimedia Commons. 

There are several surviving pieces of the True Cross around today, and together they make up some of the most important Christian relics. However, all of them are considered to be fake by most historians due to the fact the sultan Saladin captured the cross at the Battle of Hattin in 1187. The cross was last historically seen in Damascus. So many churches would eventually claim pieces of the True Cross that the French theologian and pastor John Calvin would state "There is no abbey so poor as not to have a specimen. In some places there are large fragments, as at the Holy Chapel in Paris, at Poitiers, and at Rome, where a good-sized crucifix is said to have been made of it. In brief, if all the pieces that could be found were collected together, they would make a big ship-load. Yet the Gospel testifies that a single man was able to carry it." 

Opinion

Welcome to my daily opinion! It's interesting to see history from a different perspective, and for me today that was found in the primarily Arab writings of Heraclius. When I briefly mentioned above that many tribes and cultural groups of the Arabian Peninsula became confederated into a powerful force, it wasn't all that easy for Muhammad in reality. Several other confederated tribes, like that of the Hawazin, were proving stubborn to defeat in outright military conquest. During this time many pagan symbols were destroyed as the cities were forced to convert to Islam. When I use the word "pagan" I am not referring to the Roman-Pagan beliefs, but instead deities worshiped in pre-Islamic Arabia. I will leave some further reading on these deities and the beliefs that unaccompanied them, like that of Al-Lat, a chief goddess found within Mecca. 

Sources

   Ciggaar, K. (1996). East and West in the crusader States: context, contacts, confrontations. Leuven: Peeters.
   Haykal, M. H. (2008). The life of Muḥammad. Kuala Lumpur: Islamic Book Trust.
   Kaegi, W. E. (2007). Heraclius: emperor of Byzantium. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press.

Further Reading:
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Monday, March 20, 2017

March 20

On This Day In Roman History, March 20

Publius Ovidius Naso is born in Sulmo, Italy, on March 20, 43 BCE. This famous poet, more commonly referred to as Ovid, was the first major poet debuting his career during the reign of Augustus. He was born from a well-off Equestrian family and excelled at in school where he studied Rhetoric. He was educated in Rome by the teachers Arellius Fuscus and Porcius Latro alongside his brother. Ovid's career was already becoming established by 19-16 BCE when he wrote a collection called Amores which addressed a lover named Corinna. In 8 CE he had completed his most famous and one of his most important works, Metamorphoses, which explains and talks about hundreds of myths found in Latin and Greek cultures. 

Did you know?

Ovid was banished under direct order of Augustus without any participation from the Senate. He was sent to a Black Sea settlement known as Tomis, where he continued writing and living out his days until he died there in 17 or 18 CE. He claimed his crime was "carmen et error" or "a poem and a mistake." The "Epistulae ex Ponto" was written by him to a number of friends asking them to politically influence a return to Rome, but they were left largely unanswered. 

Pictured: Statue (1887) by Ettore Ferrari
commemorating Ovid's exile in Tomis
(present-day Constanța, Romania). Photo by Romeo Tabus, via Wikimedia Commons. 

Todays selected quote is by retired professor Ian Johnston: "No work from classical antiquity, either Greek or Roman, has exerted such a continuing and decisive influence on European literature as Ovid's Metamorphoses. The emergence of French, English, and Italian national literatures in the late Middle Ages simply cannot be fully understood without taking into account the effect of this extraordinary poem. ... The only rival we have in our tradition which we can find to match the pervasiveness of the literary influence of the Metamorphoses is perhaps (and I stress perhaps) the Old Testament and the works of Shakespeare."

Opinion

Welcome to my daily opinion! Ovid was the man. He was easily the most well-known Roman poet in the middle-ages and Renaissance. His writing would help to spur thoughts and ideals on humanism within the late Renaissance. I mean, even Jesuit schools were teaching with his works in the 16th century, after cutting the passages that seemed too corrupted. This writer spanned the bridges of time and religion, maintaining relevance up to this very day. My opinion is that this is the most influential writer that ever lived.

Sources

   Naso, P. O., & Green, P. (2005). The poems of exile: Tristia and the Black Sea Letters. Berkeley: University of California press.
   Otis, B., & O. (1970). Ovid as an epic poet. 2nd ed. London: Cambridge University Press.
   Ziolkowski, T. (2005). Ovid and the moderns. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

Further Reading:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovid
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamorphoses
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fasti_(poem)


"A creature of a more exalted kind
Was wanting yet, and then was Man designed;
Conscious of thought, of more capacious breast,
For empire formed, and fit to rule the rest."
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March 19

On This Day In Roman History, March 19

The holiday of Quinquatrus is celebrated both during the republican and imperial eras of Rome's history on March 19. Some classical writers note that this holiday was celebrated for only one day but Ovid writes about how it commences over a five day period. The initial day is marked with feast and celebration of Minerva, the Roman goddess of wisdom and sponsor of arts, trade, and strategy. Day one of the feasts were marked with peace but the later four days consisted of gladiatorial combat. Minerva's birthday most likely falls on this date because her temple on the Aventine hill within Rome was completed on this day. However, the temple's completion may have been aligned with an older date which was believed to be significant to Minerva. 

Did you know?

Domitian celebrated this festival every year at his personal Alban villa. He, like so many contemporary Romans, consulted fortune tellers and diviners during this festival. Domitian was recorded to have thrown games involving wild animals, plays, and orating competitions including poetry. 

Pictured: A modern mosaic made by artist is Elihu Vedder, 1896. found now in the library of congress. Image use via Wikimedia Commons. 

In 59 CE, Nero looked to assassinate his mother, Agrippina the Younger, on the first day of Quinquatrus. He had prepared a vessel that would sink during a journey and kill Agrippina without enticing suspicion. When the time had come, the mechanism failed causing the ship to sink slow enough for Agrippina to escape. She swam to shore and was found sometime later. Unfortunately for her miraculous escape, her demise would still come from the hand of Nero just a few months later. 

Opinion

Welcome to my daily opinion! First of all, I would like to apologize for this post being my first late post during the entire project. I was sick this weekend and things just didn't line up. With that one out of the way, let's talk about government conspiracies! The plot surrounding Nero and that of his assassination of his own mother is shrouded in bias. Many writers from the time who documented these events had an anti-Nero bias. A ship that has been rigged to sink seems a bit excessive for someone with the power Nero had, but then again we are talking about his mother here. It's important to always read these stories about Nero as possibly fictitious, but I really do think this crazy boat story happened. As always, we will never know without the time machine.

Sources

   O., Boyle, A. J., & Woodard, R. D. (2004). Fasti. London: Penguin Books.
   Walton, F. R. (1955). Heirs and Rivals to Nero. Madison, Wisc.: The Association.

Further Reading: 

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Saturday, March 18, 2017

March 18

On This Day In Roman History, March 18

The Roman Senate approves the will of Tiberius, elevating Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus to Emperor on March 18, 37 CE. Caligula was named as a joint heir to all of Tiberius' estates and titles with the grandson of Tiberius, named Tiberius Julius Caesar Nero Gemellus. 

Due to the holiday (St. Patricks Day here in the US) I will update this post on the evening of 3/23/17 to completion! Thanks for letting me enjoy the holiday!


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Friday, March 17, 2017

March 17

On This Day In Roman History, March 17

Julius Caesar defeats Titus Labienus at the Battle of Munda on March 17, 45 BCE. This battle was historically the last battle in the series of conflicts known as Caesar's Civil war, which was fought against the Optimate party within the Roman Republic. This battle took place in modern day southern Spain where it is estimated that over 100,000 belligerents took place in the fighting. The main force Caesar was confronting was the Pompeian force, despite now being under the leadership of Pompey's son, Gnaeus Pompeius; Pompey the Great had died just three years earlier during an assassination. The conclusion of this battle saw the end to the civil war and it came at the cost of an estimated 37,000 dead Romans. Gnaeus was captured about a month later and executed; whereas his co-general and brother, Sextus Pompeius, died after initiating another rebellion in Sicily where he was defeated by Marcus Agrippa in 35 BCE.

Did you know?

Caesar celebrated his victory after this battle in the form of a Triumph. This was seen as a gross misconduct against morals by the Roman public because the men Caesar had killed were Romans. Triumphs had set rules to follow and one of these rules was that the battle must be against foreign enemies. Plutarch writes about this event, saying: "triumph which he celebrated for this victory displeased the Romans beyond any thing. For he had not defeated foreign generals, or barbarian kings, but had destroyed the children and family of one of the greatest men of Rome." 

Pictured: Julius Caesar Aghast at Soldier Holding Pompey's Head Original caption: Theodatus, the rhetorician, shows Caesar the head of Pompey. Etching, 1820. Upload by Wikipedia user Ldingley, via Wikimedia Commons. 

The exact location of this battle is still argued by archaeologists. Some argue Munda is was the Roman name for the modern city of Ronda, Spain. Others assert it may have happened in the cities of Montilla or Monda, with residence in Montilla claiming the battle was fought nearby. 

Opinion

Welcome to my daily opinion! Triumphs against Romans?! This alone is a testament to Caesars' power as permanent dictator at this time. He was now ignoring the ancient codes of holding a Triumph and simply just granting himself one. The crazy part is his popularity, at least with the public, wasn't largely damaged. After this battle, Caesar would have had no clue his demise was just under one year away, which I briefly discussed on the 15th; the height of his power was culminating after this battle and the Republic would never look the same after. 

Sources

   Gardner, J. F. (1967). Ceasar The Civil War. New York: Penguin Books.
   Recio, V. D. (1984). La batalla de Munda. S.l.: S.n. (Spanish)
   Southern, P. (2002). Pompey the great. Stroud, Gloucestershire: Tempus.

Further Reading:
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Thursday, March 16, 2017

March 16

On This Day In Roman History, March 16

Flavius Placidius Valentinianus Augustus is attacked and subsequently assassinated by two Scythian retainers on March 16, 455 CE. Valentinian III was finally beginning to feel secure in his position as the Hunnic threat to the north was once again pushed back. He began plotting against a political opponent named Flavius Aetius, who was a high-ranking Roman General in the closing moves of the Western Empire. With this political intrigue transpiring a high ranking senator by the name of  Petronius Maximus continued to pressure the situation, egging it on. Finally, on March 16, Valentinian stepped down from his horse outside of Campus Martius where he was struck down by two Scythian followers of Aëtius. 

Did you know?

The man ultimately behind the assassination, Petronius Maximus, had himself proclaimed Emperor by the vestiges of the Western Roman army just a few days later. This came, of course, after a large donative to the troops. His reign would be a short lived one and 11 weeks later he would be subject to a stoning from an angry Roman mob, which ended his life. 

Pictured: Solidus minted in Thessalonica to celebrate Valentinian III's marriage to Licinia Eudoxia, daughter of the Eastern Emperor Theodosius II. On the reverse, the three of them in their wedding costume. Photo by Classical Numismatic Group, via Wikimedia Commons.

Today's selected quote is from author John Bangnall Bury: "Though he had ruled for thirty years, Valentinian had influenced the destinies of his empire even less than his uncle Honorius. He only flashed once into action, when, piqued by the presumption of Aetius in aspiring to connect himself with the imperial family, he struck him down. He thought he had slain his master; he found that he had slain his protector: and he fell a helpless victim to the first conspiracy which was hatched against his throne."

Opinion

Welcome to my daily opinion! People who even remember Valentinian III remember his reign as marking the dismemberment of the West. Gibbon describes him as somewhat spoiled and ill-mannered; a perfect combination of incompetence that again and again plagues the leadership of the crumbling Western Empire. I'll leave you today with a quote from Gibbon: "Though he had ruled for thirty years, Valentinian had influenced the destinies of his empire even less than his uncle Honorius. He only flashed once into action, when, piqued by the presumption of Aetius in aspiring to connect himself with the imperial family, he struck him down. He thought he had slain his master; he found that he had slain his protector: and he fell a helpless victim to the first conspiracy which was hatched against his throne."

Sources

   A History of the Later Roman Empire From Arcadius to Irene. (2014). Cambridge Univ Pr.
   Cameron, A., & Garnsey, P. (1998). The late Empire, A.D. 337-425. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Jones, A. H., Martindale, J. R., & Morris, J. (2006). The prosopography of the later Roman empire. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press.

Further Reading:
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Wednesday, March 15, 2017

March 15

On This Day In Roman History, March 15

The dictator perpetuo of Rome, Gaius Julius Caesar, is assassinated by the Liberatores within the Theater of Pompey on March 15, 44 BCE. The Republic which lasted the last four and a half centuries was for the first time threatened. During the late morning of the Ides, Mark Antony attempted to stop Caesar near the steps of the forum after discovering the plot from a severely frightened Liberatores named Publius Servilius Casca Longus. His plan failed when a group of Senators stopped Caesar while he was passing the Theatrum Pompeii. They brought him into a room located in the east portico of the building and some 60 men began stabbing Caesar after a quick verbal confrontation from a man name Lucius Tillius Cimber. As it became apparent what was happening Caesar yelled, "Ista quidem vis est!" which means "Why, this is violence!". The group of assassins moved to the streets and proclaimed "People of Rome, we are once again free!" but were met with silence as the majority of residence began fleeing into their homes and locking their doors. A group of slaves carried Caesar's body to his home where he was examined by a physician. This autopsy showed that only one of the stabs was fatal and a wax figurine of Caesar was put on display in the forum showing the 23 stab wounds. The civil war that would spring up within this power vacuum forever changed and transformed Rome from its Republican Era into its Principate Imperial Era. 

Did you know?

Marcus Tullius Cicero was not invited nor informed of the assassination despite his viewpoints and personal alliances, making him a possible candidate for the Liberatores. In a personal letter a conspirator named Gaius Trebonius Cicero wrote that he wished he was "invited to that superb banquet." It was his personal opinion that Antony should have been killed as well, but the Liberatores claimed they must symbolically kill just one in order to appear more in line with committing a "tyrannicide" rather than just overthrowing the government itself. 


Pictured: La Mort de César (ca. 1859–1867) by Jean-Léon Gérôme. Characteristically, Gérôme has depicted not the incident itself, but its immediate aftermath. The illusion of reality that Gérôme imparted to his paintings with his smooth, polished technique led one critic to comment, "If photography had existed in Caesar's day, one could believe that the picture was painted from a photograph taken on the spot at the very moment of the catastrophe." Via Wikimedia Commons. 

Today's selected quote is from a Greek historian from the Augustan age named Nicolaus of Damascus. He describes how several friends, doctors, and Caesar's wife Calpurnia implore him not to leave his home on the Ides: "...his friends were alarmed at certain rumors and tried to stop him going to the Senate-house, as did his doctors, for he was suffering from one of his occasional dizzy spells. His wife, Calpurnia, especially, who was frightened by some visions in her dreams, clung to him and said that she would not let him go out that day. But [Decimus] Brutus, one of the conspirators who was then thought of as a firm friend, came up and said, 'What is this, Caesar? Are you a man to pay attention to a woman's dreams and the idle gossip of stupid men, and to insult the Senate by not going out, although it has honoured you and has been specially summoned by you? But listen to me, cast aside the forebodings of all these people, and come. The Senate has been in session waiting for you since early this morning.' This swayed Caesar and he left."

Opinion

Welcome to my daily opinion! Many Roman citizens and politicians viewed Caesar as an incredibly effective leader who was doing so much more good than bad, and that just maybe dictator for life wasn't such a bad idea. The public was also increasingly viewing the Senate as a corrupt aristocracy that was slow to respond and even slower to act. Technologies that connect humans today allow for vast numbers of individuals to work quickly and efficiently together, but in these classical times a quick response from an individual not tied down by the slow (even slower than today's) bureaucracy could mean the difference between a victory or defeat. Caesar's power, and later Octavian's power, proved to be much quicker and beneficial in terms of lawmaking and military response because the decisions were being made by one man. The only apparent downside to this is if that one man doesn't make great decisions... you have a problem. Today I think it’s important to view these past events and really decide what the true price of liberty is; it may be even more important to remember how unintended consequences can define history.

Sources

   Fuller, J. F. (1991). Julius Caesar: Man, soldier and tyrant. Da Capo Press.
   S., Thomson, A., & Forester, T. (2007). Lives of the twelve Caesars: Caligula. S.I.: DoDo Press.
   Woolf, G. (2006). Et tu, Brute?: the murder of Caesar and political assassination. London: Profile Books.

Further Reading:
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Tuesday, March 14, 2017

March 14

On This Day In Roman History, March 14

A Feriae Marti, sometimes called sacrum Mamurio, takes place in Rome as one of two different annual horse races on March 14. The other Equirria (horse race) takes place on February 27 and is comparable in its celebrations. The festival in its earliest days probably consisted of only horseback racing until technological advances for chariot racing caused the later to be more popular, and thus celebrated. These assumptions are based on the historical fact of an archaic festival called Consualia which is the well-documented festival Romulus organized in order to lure the Sabines into Rome. The event was held in honor of Mars and legend tells of its conception by Romulus. This is one of two festivals of this type that occur on even days, the other being the "Kings Flight" I discussed on February 24.

Did you know?

The German classical philologist Georg Otto August Wissowa pointed out several strong arguments for the celebration originally taking place on the 15th of March, but Romans changes its date because "of conflicts among religious events concentrated around this ritually fraught time". Other views suggest that this festival may have had a floating date sometime during this week, which would be selected on whichever day was most convenient. Originally this race marked the ritual end of the year and beginning of the new. This was no longer the case, however, after changes to the calendar marked January as the first month of the new year. 

Pictured: Denarius depicting the helmeted head of Mars, with Victory driving a biga on the reverse. Issued 88 BC by Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus. Photo by Classical Numismatic Group, via Wikimedia Commons.

Today's quote is from the German scholar of comparative religion and classical philology, Jörg Rüpke: "The Equirria occurred between King's Flight and New Year, bridging the period of 'disorder': held immediately before the new moon, they prepared the way for the reestablishment of order with the new month and year."

Opinion

Welcome to my daily opinion! As always, most history involving Romulus and anything he founded is usually mythical. If one looks deeper into possible origins of such festivals, the ancient celebration of Consualia associated the act of horse or chariot racing with that of the underworld gods (di inferi). The Dutch scholar Hendrik Wagenvoort pointed out these things and drew the conclusions that the archaic Roman image of Mars "had been imagined as the god of death and the underworld in the shape of a horse." Pulling together conclusions from some of these more ancient speculations shows that the origins were probably rooted in a type of war festival and only celebrated into later antiquity in the form of religious tradition. I am signing off today and am excited for a big day tomorrow! See you on the Ides! 

Sources

   Rosenstein, N. S. (2010). A companion to the Roman republic. Malden, Mass.: Wiley-Blackwell.
   Humphrey, J. H. (1986). Roman circuses: arenas for chariot racing. Berkeley: Univ. of Calif. Press.
   Wagenvoort, H. (1978). Studies in Roman literature, culture, and religion. New York: Garland Pub.

Further Reading: 
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Monday, March 13, 2017

March 13

On This Day In Roman History, March 13

Herod the Great, the King of Judea, dies following an eclipse on March 13, 4 BCE. This eclipse is referenced by the first-century Romano-Jewish scholar and historian Josephus and is the supposed date of Herod's death. Most modern scholars will agree that if the death did not take place on this actual day, then it most certainly did take place in late March or early April. Herod was a client king installed by the Romans in 37 BCE. He was granted the title King of Judea by the Roman Senate and prospered under Roman over-lordship. He therefore supported the Roman agenda in full and even made the successful jump from supporting Antony to supporting Octavian.

Did you know?

Herod's demeanor was often marked as paranoid and an interesting story referenced in the New Testament shows just this. Some magi from the East announced that a birth of a king had happened and according to Matthew Herod inquired the whereabouts of this new "king of the Jews". Herod was shocked to find there may be plans to usurp him and gathered his ministers asking them where this alleged "Anointed One" was born. Herod had every boy under the age of two, within Bethlehem, killed. Modern historians think that these events, known as the Massacre of the Innocents, probably really did take place but Bethlehem being a small village may have resulted only in about 20 deaths. 

Pictured: A 1430's depiction of King Herod attempting suicide. Photo by Alexander Master, via Wikimedia Commons. 

Herod suffered from several debilitating diseases and suffered much of his life. The selected quote is from Josephus in which he talks about Herod's tomb. "So they threw down all the hedges and walls which the inhabitants had made about their gardens and groves of trees, and cut down all the fruit trees that lay between them and the wall of the city, and filled up all the hollow places and the chasms, and demolished the rocky precipices with iron instruments; and thereby made all the place level from Scopus to Herod's monuments, which adjoined to the pool called the Serpent's Pool."

Opinion

Welcome to my daily opinion! Yesterday was on this day in Gothic history and today is apparently Judea history. Herod has been very vilified throughout history for what I assume are pretty obvious reasons. Not even looking at the religious side of things, he was still classified as a tyrant who murdered his family and did essentially anything to further his own personal ambitions. That being said, he must have been a pretty crafty dude in order to win favor of Octavian and retain all his spoils of sole King of Judea. This too, however, could again be credited to Octavian's wit not to disturb the status quo and let things keep on rolling the way they had been installed under a previously loyal Antony. 

Sources

   Ben-Sasson, H. H., & Malamat, A. (2002). A history of the Jewish people. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.
   Grant, M. (1971). Herod the Great. New York: American Heritage Press.
   Josephus, F., & Feldman, L. H. (2004). Josephus. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Univ. Press.

Further Reading:
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Sunday, March 12, 2017

March 12

On This Day In Roman History, March 12

The First Siege of Rome, which took place during the Gothic War, comes to a conclusion on March 12, 538 CE. 10 days ago, I talked about this very siege (http://onthisdayinromanhistory.blogspot.com/2017/03/march-2.html) which started on March 2, 537. The failure of the Goths was ultimately at the hands of the Gothic king, Vitiges, who was captured by Belisarius in Ravenna and sent as a captive to Constantinople. He would die there without an heir or child which left a power vacuum at home. At this time, a Gothic officer by the name of Ildibad negotiated terms with the Romans. He did not submit, however, and proved to be a competent leader who came to power at the direction of Vitiges' nephew, Uraias. He would reign as the Ostrogothic king in Italy from 540 to 541. Following Ildibad's murder in May of 541, a Rugini official briefly took power in 541 but soon fell to the power of a skilled military leader by the name of Totila. This king would go on to re-siege Rome in 546 and this time the Goths would succeed in sacking the city. 

Did you know?

Concentrated Gothic political power would come to an end in 553, shortly after the death of Totila at the Battle of Taginae in 552. During this battle, it was written that Totila was killed by a Gepid Lancer by the name of Asbad. The final Ostrogothic king also died in quick succession during this series of conflicts. This would ultimately mark the end of Gothic power forever. 

Pictured: The Porta Asinaria or Asinarian Gate, through which Totila entered Rome. Photo by Wikipedia user Lalupa, via Wikimedia Commons. 

This gate belongs to the set of walls known as the Aurelian Walls, which encircled Rome after its completion in 273. This is the same gate that Belisarius entered into the city through in 536. By the 16th-century an increase in traffic and new technologies, which rendered the walls somewhat useless, caused a breach to be made by the city's inhabitants near the Port San Giovanni. 

Opinion

Welcome to my daily opinion! I guess I should have started this post off with "on this day in Gothic history". Seriously though, it is important to see what type of pressures Belisarius faced from the Goths. These peoples were adopting late western-Roman culture and practices. Many even considered themselves patricians and Roman citizens. This type of cultural adaptation happens at other times in history, wherein a conquered peoples culture is altered and adopted by the conquerors. Different peoples throughout Europe would be influenced by past western-Roman culture, and its profound effects on those peoples can still be seen today in many areas. It's also a nice change of pace to see the Goths had as many internal quarrels, deceptions, and assassinations among their rulers as the Romans did. It wasn't easy being king. 

Sources

   Barnsley: Belisarius: the last roman general. (2014). Barnsley: Pen & Sword Military.
   Gibbon, E., & Womersley, D. (2005). The history of the decline and fall of the Roman Empire. London: Penguin Books.
   Weir, W. (2005). 50 battles that changed the world: the conflicts that most influenced the course of history. New York: Barnes & Noble.

Further Reading:

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Saturday, March 11, 2017

March 11

On This Day In Roman History, March 11

Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus, confusingly known as Elagabalus, and his mother are assassinated following a revolt carried out by the Praetorian Guard on March 11, 222 CE. This decline of relations was occurring in early 221, when Elagabalus' relationship with Hierocles began provoking the Guard. As relationships declined due to Elagabalus' own eccentricities and paranoia about his newly appointed Caesar, his fate became sealed. Cassius Dio writes about the situation: "So he made an attempt to flee, and would have got away somewhere by being placed in a chest, had he not been discovered and slain, at the age of 18. His mother, who embraced him and clung tightly to him, perished with him; their heads were cut off and their bodies, after being stripped naked, were first dragged all over the city, then the mother's body was cast aside somewhere or other while his was thrown into the [Tiber]."

Did you know?

Many individuals publicly questioned Elagabalus' sexuality due to him quickly moving through a series of five different wives and his relationship involving a chariot driver slave named Hierocles. This man was referred to by the Emperor himself as his "husband" and is rumored to have married another man named Zoticus in a public ceremony in Rome. It was also rumored Elagabalus asked several physicians if they could equip him with female genitalia in exchange for a large sum of money. 

Pictured: The Roses of Heliogabalus (1888), by the Anglo-Dutch academician Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema. It shows guests at one of his extravagant dinner parties smothered under a mass of "violets and other flowers" dropped from above. Photo by: Lawrence Alma-Tadema, via Wikimedia Commons.

Today I have again selected to quote Dio, this time talking about the inappropriate acts Elagabalus committed: "Finally, he set aside a room in the palace and there committed his indecencies, always standing nude at the door of the room, as the harlots do, and shaking the curtain which hung from gold rings, while in a soft and melting voice he solicited the passers-by. There were, of course, men who had been specially instructed to play their part. For, as in other matters, so in this business, too, he had numerous agents who sought out those who could best please him by their foulness. He would collect money from his patrons and give himself airs over his gains; he would also dispute with his associates in this shameful occupation, claiming that he had more lovers than they and took in more money."

Opinion

Welcome to my daily opinion! The moral boundaries of sexual interaction within the spec of Roman tolerance were pushed continuously by this man. We often hear of accounts where individuals were uncomfortable around the actions Elagabalus committed. As we continue to see the cultural changes moving towards a more Christian set of values occur, we can see the difference in acceptance of individuals preforming acts considered sexually inappropriate. While these changes were still in their infancy, Elagabalus pushed them to the limit with his somewhat perverted actions and this caused him a serious amount of discrediting. 

Sources

   Cocceianus, C. D., Cary, E., & Foster, H. B. (1970). Dio's Roman history. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
   De, A. Y. (2011). The Emperor Elagabalus: fact or fiction? Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
   Grant, M. (1996). The Severans: the changed Roman empire. London: Routledge.

Further Reading:
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Friday, March 10, 2017

March 10

On This Day In Roman History, March 10 

The Battle of the Aegates takes place between the Roman Republic and Carthage on March 10, 241 BCE. This conflict took place off the coast of the Aegadian Islands and would mark the historic end of the conflict known as the First Punic War. By early 241, the conflicts involving the Roman Republic were somewhat calm, mostly due to Rome lacking any real naval power. Most military maneuvers at this point were taking place within Sicily. The problem of naval supremacy was solved by a populous movement in which wealthy Roman citizens raised money and donated to personally purchase ships for the state, both at the individual and group level. The result was some 200 quinqueremes and their men being constructed, all at the expense of personal donation. During the ensuing battle, a Carthaginian fleet weighed down by all the required equipment and men to adequately run a foreign attack on the Romans, payed against the minimally loaded Roman ships. Before setting sail in the new fleet, the Roman naval commander Gaius Lutatius Catulus made the important decision to sacrifice time for experience; he spent months drilling and training this Roman fleet in order to compete with rather renowned Carthaginian sailors. These two factors proved to help and win the battle for the Romans, who managed to capture or destroy over half of the opposing fleet. This battle would mark the conclusion of Carthaginian willingness to fight and a peace offer was set, known as the Treaty of Lutatius. This treaty was much more favorable to the Romans than it was to the defeated Carthaginians. 

Did you know?

The quinquereme was the most famous Hellenistic/ early classical-era warship due to its heavy utilization by both the Romans and Carthaginians. The credit for its invention dates back to 399 BCE, where Dionysius I dictated they be created and used in a navy to fight Carthaginians. The Greek historian, Polybius (200-118 BCE), wrote that the Romans captured a sinking quinquereme from Carthage, using its blueprint to create their own successful ship. Modern archaeologists have found numerous naval rams and ship remains allowing us to understand how these ships operated at a detailed level. 

Pictured: Bronze Carthaginian naval ram dated from or before the Battle of the Egadi Islands, First Punic War (241 B.C.). Discovered in 2010 at a depth of 80 meters. Shows damage in the form of V-shaped scratches, attributed to frontal collision(s) with Roman ships (ram against ram). A single line of Punic letters with 35 characters, offered as a supplication to the god Baal, is present. Picture by Wikipedia user Sb2s3, via Wikimedia Commons.

Although the Roman quinqueremes were nearly identical copies of the Carthaginian's ships, they were much heavy and constructed with higher quality materials. These ships crewed some 420 men, with 300 of them being rowers. The ships would have 45 oars protruding from either side and the decks would rise about 3 meters (just under 10 feet) above the seas. The other 120 men were divided into 100 marines and another 20 deck hands who were responsible for the ultimate movement and operational control of the ship. 

Opinion 

Welcome to my daily opinion! This is so close to the time period I truly love in Roman history; Punic Wars! Technology was growing faster than ever before, even if it seems pretty slow by today's standards. Naval warfare was no exception and better ships/ naval combat techniques were popping up constantly. The introduction of the quinqueremes over the older, smaller triremes proved to be one of these revolutionary upgrades. These ships could be compared today to modern fighter aircraft. They are pretty expensive to both construct and maintain, not even mentioning to supply and man it. The Carthaginian senate was just not comfortable funding the re-construction of yet another fleet to potentially be destroyed at the hands of the Romans. As peace was pursued, the Romans exploited this and really did win the First Punic War, even if things were no where near clear cut as to who the ultimate winner would be in the decades to come.

Sources

   Goldsworthy, A. (2009). The fall of Carthage: the Punic Wars 265 - 146 BC. London: Phoenix.
   Lazenby, J. F. (2003). The first Punic War: a military history. London: Routledge.
   Morrison, J. S. (2004). The age of the galley: Mediterranean oared vessels since pre-classical times. London: Conway Maritime.

Further Reading:
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Thursday, March 9, 2017

March 9

On This Day In Roman History, March 9

A Roman commemorative festival known as a dies religiosus is celebrated on March 9, during the times of pre-republican and republican era Rome. The festival involved priests, known as Salii, which can be translated as the "leaping priests", and were youth selected from the patrician class. They dawned archaic Roman armor which consisted of a "tunic, breastplate, a short red cloak (paludamentum), a sword, and a spiked headdress called an apex". These priests took the famous shields known as Ancilia and paraded them through the streets of Rome in front of cheering crowds. The shields themselves were a type of ancient Roman shield known as an Ancile. The complete set of these shields, numbering 12 in total, were regarded as sacred and kept within the Temple of Mars. Legend said that the shield fell from the sky in a divine fashion at the feet of Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome. He ordered the other 11 copies to be made so that no would-be thief could steal the actual one, being unable to distinguish it from the other copies.

Did you know?

These shields belonged to a group of Roman artifacts known as "pignora imperii" which can be translated as "pledges of rule". These items were intended to act as a guarantee that would entitle Rome to its continued imperium. The later Roman Empire would look to preserve other culturally important items such as the Altar of Victory and treat it with comparable respect. The preservation of all the mentioned items came under threat during the Christian hegemony.

Pictured: Portrait of a flamen. This priest was comparable in style to the Salii. Marble, ca 250-260 CE. Found within the Louvre Museum: Department of Greek, Etruscan and Roman Antiquities. Denon wing, ground floor, room 27. Photo by Wikipedia user Jastrow, via Wikimedia Commons. 

Maurus Servius Honoratus, a late fourth-century historian, lists the pignora imperii as follows:

1. The stone of the Mother of the Gods (Cybele)
2. The terracotta four-horse chariot brought from Veii, supposed to have been commissioned by the last king of Rome Tarqinius Superbus, which was displayed on the roof of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the Capitoline
3. The ashes of Orestes, supposedly kept at the same temple
4. The scepter of Priam, brought to Rome by Aeneas
5. The veil of Ilione, daughter of Priam, another Trojan token attributed to Aeneas
6. The Palladium;
7. The ancilia or sacred shields given to Numa.

Opinion

Welcome to my daily opinion! I would like to start off by saying the modern historian Alan Cameron classifies three of the mentioned items as fictional (the ashes, scepter, and veil) simply because they are not named in any other sources that we have found. The others are written of widely in Latin literature and found within many different time periods of Roman history. With that being said, I would like to try and more easily define the above term "religiosus". This term can be best described as belonging directly to the gods. It is sometimes confused with the Latin "sacer" which is something given to the gods. We can find that Romans believed a location struck by lightning immediately became somewhat taboo because it was now "religiosus by Jupiter himself". I will leave some further reading if you would really like to dive into the nitty-gritty of both terms and, as always, feel free to directly message me with any further questions.

Sources

   Turcan, Robert. The Gods of ancient Rome: religion in everyday life from archaic to imperial times. New York: Routledge, 2001.
   Fowler, W. Warde. The religious experience of the Roman people: from the earliest times to the age of Augustus. Charleston, SC: BiblioBazaar, 2008.
   Livius, Titus, Robert Maxwell. Ogilvie, and William C. Flamstead. Walters. Ab urbe condita. Oxonii: Clarendon, 2007.

Further Reading:
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Wednesday, March 8, 2017

March 8

On This Day In Roman History, March 8

Following the death of Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius Antoninus is given the title Augustus and becomes sole ruler of the Roman Empire on March 8, 161 CE. Within the following days, the title Imperator and Pontifex Maximus were bestowed upon him by the Senate. Marcus' first months in office looked to complete the unfinished tasks Hadrian had left before him. This was motivated by his Stoic beliefs and it is believed he had no personal affiliation or obligation to complete some or all of the tasks Hadrian left behind. Marcus would also take the step to appoint a co-Emperor, Lucius Verus. To the public and politically elite alike, there would be no doubt that Verus was junior to his senior Augustus. Marcus held more auctoritas, which is the Latin word for "authority", due to the retention of the titles Imperator and Pontifex Maximus. 

Did you know?

Marcus and Verus met with the Praetorian guard shortly after their Imperial ascension and donated an incredible 20,000 sesterces, or 5,000 denarii, per soldier. It scaled up and doled out more to higher ranking officers. This amount was equivalent to several years' worth of salary for these men and was over double that of any previous donation from an Emperor. The pair were saluted as "imperatores" by the soldiers, and the ceremony concluded. 

Pictured: Busts of the co-emperors Marcus Aurelius (left) and Lucius Verus (right), found within the British Museum. Photo by Carole Raddato, via Wikimedia Commons. 

The selected quote from today is from Macrus' personal writing found within his books "Meditations", written between 161 to 180: "Constantly regard the universe as one living being, having one substance and one soul; and observe how all things have reference to one perception, the perception of this one living being; and how all things act with one movement; and how all things are the cooperating causes of all things which exist; observe too the continuous spinning of the thread and the contexture of the web."

Opinion

Welcome to my daily opinion! Today I would like to ponder the question: why did Verus and Marcus donate SO MUCH money to the Praetorians? To help answer this, we must follow the trends. Every Emperor after Claudius was donating to the guard and financially securing the army. As the army became more and more disconnected from their original farmer-soldier motives, complexities with auxiliary and new citizen-soldiers alike were starting to become a complex beast to tackle. For Marcus, he didn't personally receive any external or internal threat on his route to Emperor. This massive donation was simply insurance. I think he is one of the most intelligent Emperors ever to reign and truly believe he was predicting the future for what holding power looked like; solid control of the armed forces via personal loyalty in the form of huge donations. 

Sources

   Birley, A. (2016). Marcus Aurelius: a biography. London: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.
   McLynn, F. (2010). Marcus Aurelius: a life. New York: Da Capo Press.

Further Reading:
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Tuesday, March 7, 2017

March 7

On This Day In Roman History, March 7

Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus Augustus declares a new legislation that asserts Sunday as a "venerable day of the sun" and a day for rest on March 7, 321 CE. This dies Solis Invicti can be literally translated as "sun-day" and is the etymological root for the day title of "Sunday". This legislation proposed that the entire Empire take a day of resting on this seventh day. The Latin term Invictus, meaning "Unconquered" or "Invincible" was a somewhat common honorific for several Roman-pagan deities.

Did you know?

The Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus, more commonly known as Elagabalus, adopted upon himself the cult of Sol. He sought to use his image in its place and install himself as a deity, referring to himself as Jupiter and Sol (fuit autem Heliogabali vel Iovis vel Solis). After his murder in 222, this image was dropped and forgotten. Elagabalus was a native to Syria and some historians view this move as an attempt to important the Syrian god of the sun into Roman culture. 

Pictured: Dedication made by a priest of Jupiter Dolichenus on behalf of the well-being (salus) of the emperors, to Sol Invictus and the Genius of the military unit equites singulares. 150 - 200 CE, found at The Baths of Diocletian. Excavated in 1855. Photo by Marie-Lan Nguyen, via Wikimedia Commons. 

Today's quote is from Constantine's Decree. "On the venerable day of the Sun let the magistrates and people residing in cities rest, and let all workshops be closed. In the country however persons engaged in agriculture may freely and lawfully continue their pursuits because it often happens that another day is not suitable for grain-sowing or vine planting; lest by neglecting the proper moment for such operations the bounty of heaven should be lost."

Opinion 

Welcome to my daily opinion! Let's take a second and remember intricacies within Latin entomology and what they mean to us in modern language is confusing. Like, really really confusing. Most of these religious words we attempt to translate and understand today are not exact. Modern scholars can't even make up their minds on if "Sol" and "Sol Invictus" are two separate deities. With this all being said, I just want to express my opinion that it is important to view these ceremonial terms and practices with as open as a mind as possible, because their actual understandings and meanings to contemporary Romans were probably very complex and still somewhat misunderstood today. Before I sign off for the night, I would also like to point out the rather interesting fact that the Dies Natalis Solis Invicti was probably later synchronized with the date of Christmas; however, somewhat strong arguments exist stating Christmas tradition may even predate the mentioned festival. 

Sources

   Dirven, L. (1999). The Palmyrenes of Dura-Europos: a study of religious interaction in Roman Syria. Leiden: Brill.
   Forsythe, G. (2012). Time in Roman religion one thousand years of religious history. New York, NY: Routledge.
   Halsberghe, G. H. (1972). The cult of Sol Invictus. Leiden: E. J. Brill.

Further Reading:
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Monday, March 6, 2017

March 6

On This Day In Roman History, March 6

Imperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus obtains the title of Pontifex Maximus sometime after the death of Marcus Aemilius Lepidus on March 6, 13 BCE. Lepidus was the last Pontifex Maximus to serve under the Roman Republic and once he had fallen out of favor after Augustus' consolidation of power, the transfer of offices was probably easy for the new Principes to acquire. From this point on, every Roman Emperor would maintain the religious office for themselves, as it slowly changed from its historically deeper religious responsibilities to just the sacral aspect of Imperial religious duties. Augustus even appointed a promagister to perform the duties on behalf of the Pontifex Maximus when the Emperor was away or busy. Augustus would hold this religious office until his death in 14 CE.

Did you know?

The last Emperor to use the title was Gratian, who in 382 CE renounced his title of Pontifex Maximus and also removed the Altar of Victory from the Forum. The title is found in later historical contexts, notably during the Renaissance of the 15th century. During this time, fascination with ancient Rome was spurred and the title of Pontifex Maximus became a regular title to honor the Popes. The title can even be found as recently as December 2012, where Pope Benedict XVI registered on Twitter with the handle "@pontifex". A trending series of questions prompted under the hashtag "#askpontifex" spurred users to inquire on the etiological meaning of the term. The Twitter handle is still in use today and is maintained by his successor, Pope Francis. 

Pictured: Augustus as Pontifex Maximus: head covered, wearing the toga and calcei patricii (shoes reserved for Patricians), he extends his right arm to pour a libation; a cupsa (container for officiel documents) lies at his feet. Greek marble (arms and head) and Italic marble (body), Roman artwork of the late Augustan period. Circa 90-100 CE. Made of Greek and Italic marble, found within the National Museum of Rome. Photo by Marie-Lan Nguyen, Via Wikimedia Commons. 

The main duties of the Pontifex are "pax deorum" or "peace with the gods". I have selected today's quote from Wikipedia, and it list the various responsibilities of the office. 

1. The regulation of all expiatory ceremonials needed as a result of pestilence, lightning, etc.
2. The consecration of all temples and other sacred places and objects dedicated to the gods.
3. The regulation of the calendar; both astronomically and in detailed application to the public life of the state.
4. The administration of the law relating to burials and burying-places, and the worship of the Manes or dead ancestors.
5. The superintendence of all marriages by conferratio, i.e. originally of all legal patrician marriages.
6. The administration of the law of adoption and of testamentary succession.
7. The regulation of the public morals, and fining and punishing offending parties.

Opinion

Welcome to my daily opinion! I wonder if I will ever be able to talk about Twitter again during Roman history discussions. I hope the Popes keep this Twitter handle forever! It is very easy to tell what broad stage Rome was historically in simply by viewing who was the Pontifex Maximus and what their duties were. Even by the time of Augustus, his responsibilities were becoming a bit more trivial and ceremonial rather than crucially followed and respected like it was in the earlier Republic. With the Christian transformation happening in the 300's, the removal of the title tells a lot about the shifting state-religion. It is my personal opinion that Rome fell in 382 with the removal of the Altar of Victory from the Senate house. This of course does not mark any real end, but for me it is a "breaking point" that allows me to view the more classical Republic, early, and late Empire in a cleaner way. The tittle of Pontifex Maximus can be used in the same way and help us understand how times were changing for our favorite city, Rome. 

Sources

   Chisholm, K., & Ferguson, J. (1981). Rome: the Augustan age: a source book. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press.
   Raaflaub, K. A., Toher, M., & Bowersock, G. W. (1993). Between republic and empire: interpretations of Augustus and his principate. Berkeley: University of California Press.
   Rüpke, J., & Richardson, D. M. (2014). From Jupiter to Christ: on the history of religion in the Roman imperial period. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press.

Further Reading:
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