February 7

On This Day In Roman History, February 7

Flavius Valerius Leo Augustus, also known as Leo I, is crowned Emperor of the Byzantine Empire on February 7, 457 CE. As mentioned on my January 18th entry (see further reading section below for link) Leo I was the first Roman Emperor to involve the Patriarch of Constantinople in his coronation. Leo also notably was the first Eastern Emperor to legislate in Greek rather than Latin. His rise to power began from a military career, where he achieved the rank of comes (Latin for companion). Leo's early reign was defined by an Eastern Roman patrician of either Alanic or Gothic descent named Flavius Ardabur Aspar. This Germanic general had been essentially assigning puppet Emperors (Theodosius II, Marcian and Leo I), wielding his military and political prestige to great extent in the Eastern Roman Empire from the early 420's until his death in 471. Leo would eventually implicate both Aspar and his eldest son, Ardabur, in a plot that would claim both of their lives.

Did you know?

Leo and his wife Verina had three children, of which the youngest was a daughter named Leontia. This Leonatia would go on to be wed to Marcian, the son of Emperor Anthemius and Marcia Euphemia. Marcian and Leontia would go on to lead the failed revolt against Zeno in 478. They would later be exiled to Isauria for this action, now in the modern day Konya Province of Turkey. 

Pictured: Bust of Byzantine Empreror Leo I (reigned 457–474 AD). Alabaster (antique head) and marble (modern restoration), ca. 470 AD. Photo by Marie-Lan Nguyen, via Wikimedia Commons. 

I have seen a large amount of discussion on this particular bust, and people mainly seem confused on its strange appearance. It should be noted that during this time the classical Latin or Western style(s) was changing and becoming something completely different in the East. This particular bust probably contained precious gems for the eyes or pupils, or a painted wax/ soft stone. This bust may have been in full color but no modern studies (that I could find) have proven this one way or another, For an interesting read on color and design of sculptures in classical antiquity, check out the second link in the further reading section below. 

Opinion

In my other opinion section on Leo, I praised his work that probably did temporarily suspend the demise of the Western Empire. Today it is my opinion that this Thracian dude really must have been politically influential to throw off the shackles of the entrenched power Aspar held over him. The two Emperors before him (Theodosius II and Marcian) could not do what he did. To be fair, Aspar had a large amount of influence not over these Emperors, but over the East and its culture as a whole. Leo would mark the end of the Germanic domination of Eastern Roman policy.

Sources

   Fleury, C., Parode, B., Ziegler, D., & A. (1758). Historia Ecclesiastica. August. Vind.: Wolff.

   Mitchell, S. (2007). A history of the later Roman Empire: AD 284-641: the transformation of the ancient world. Malden, MA: Blackwell.

   Norwich, J. J. (1989). Byzantium: the early centuries. New York: Knopf.

   Williams, S., & Friell, J. G. (1999). The Rome that did not fall: the survival of the East in the fifth century. London: Routledge.

Further Reading:

http://onthisdayinromanhistory.blogspot.com/2017/01/january-18.html

http://www.colourlovers.com/blog/2008/06/16/gods-in-color-painted-sculpture-of-classical-antiquity/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_I_the_Thracian

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcian_(usurper)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspar

Special Thanks: Michael Houghan

February 6

On This Day In Roman History, February 6

The Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, Photios I of Constantinople, dies in exile on February 6, in 891 or 893 CE. Photios served as the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople twice, first from 858 to 867 and then from 877 to 886. An iconic man of his age and of the Byzantine Empire, Photios was incredibly well educated. His most notable work, titled Bibliotheca or Myriobiblon, dealt with the theological schisms that existed within Christianity at this time. This work contains several hundred pieces from other authors that had been lost to history, and would be lost to us today without this writing. Adrian Fortescue, a Roman Catholic priest and writer from the turn of the 20th century, called Photios "the most wonderful man of all the Middle Ages", also saying "had not given his name to the great schism, he would always be remembered as the greatest scholar of his time".

Did you know?

All though Photios had an excellent education, there is no record of where or how this education took place. The University of the Palace Hall of Magnaura lays claim to him having taught there, but most modern scholars discredit this as an after the fact attempt to claim some of his prestige. It is recorded he taught many students privately, and was a close friend of the famous Leo the Mathematician. It is possible Photios received some type of formal education in Baghdad while serving in an embassy to the Abbasids. 

Pictured:  Image of a fresco in Saint Sophia's Cathedral, Kiev, from the book "О значении для России константинопольского патриарха Фотия" ("The significance for Russia of the Patriarch of Constantinople Photius") by N. Leopard, 189. Via Wikimedia Commons. 

Opinion 

Welcome to my daily opinion! This point at the beginning of the Byzantine Dark Ages is pretty confusing. Theology, in terms of Christianity, is getting deeper and deeper into its schisms and divisions between the different churches. Photios was really tied up in deep, complex ecclesiastical conflicts. Many contemporary writings of him reflect this and bash him more than they probably should simply because they disagreed on minute theological differences. A more positive thing Photios accomplished, in my opinion, is the return of humanism being added to the understanding of Othodox Christianity, affecting the consciousness of contemporary Byzantines citizens. 

Sources 

   Lemerle, P., Lindsay, H., & Moffatt, A. (1986). Byzantine humanism: the first phase. Canberra: Australian Association for Byzantine Studies.

   Rautman, M. L. (2006). Daily life in the Byzantine Empire. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

   White, D. S., & P. (1981). Patriarch Photios of Constantinople: his life, scholarly contributions, and correspondence together with a translation of fifty-two of his letters. Brookline, MA: Holy Cross Orthodox Press.

Further Reading:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliotheca_(Photius)

http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/photius_03bibliotheca.htm

Special Thanks: Michael Houghan

February 5

On This Day In Roman History, February 5

An earthquake strikes in Campania causing severe damage to the towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum on February 5, 62 CE. Modern day estimations rate this earthquake from somewhere between a 5 to a 6.1 on the Richter scale. Damage from this earthquake had been reported as far away as Naples and Nuceria. Modern views point to this as being a notable precursor for later seismic activity and the eventual eruption of Mount Vesuvius 17 year later in 79. Most of the information for this earthquake is found in a set of bas-reliefs within the Pompeiian home of a Roman baker by the name of Lucius Caecilius Iucundus, and within the writing of Seneca the Younger's book Naturales quaestiones. Notable damages include the Temple of Jupiter, the Aquarium of Cesar, and the Vesuvius Gate, as depicted in today's image. 

Did you know?

In the sixth book of Seneca's Naturales quaestiones is a section on earthquakes titled De Terrae Motu, or "Concerning Earthquakes" in English. This compilation by Seneca is one of the very few Roman works that attempts to deal with truly scientific matters in a somewhat scientific way. Most of his findings were wrong concerning these natural events and moral/ethical lessons are scattered regularly throughout the work. For example, Seneca thought that the aftershocks felt for days post the original earthquake were due to entrapped toxic gasses jostling below the earth's surface attempting to free themselves, and some of these poison gasses were responsible for the death of 300 sheep that died in the mentioned earthquake. 

Pictured: One of the marble bas-reliefs, in the form of an artistic slab, depicting the event of the 62 CE earthquake. From The Wilhelmina and Stanley A. Jashemski archive in the University of Maryland Library, Special Collections, via Creative Commons. 

Seneca enquired deeply on why these events around him were taking place, quoted in Naturales quaestiones stating: "...why at times are fires caused to shoot out through some hitherto unknown opening in mountain or crag, while sometimes well-known fires, that have been famous for centuries, are suppressed? The earthquake produces a thousand strange sights, changing the aspect of the ground, leveling mountains, elevating plains, exalting valleys, raising new islands in the deep. What are the causes that bring these things to pass? That is a subject well worthy our discussion." 

Opinion

Welcome to my daily opinion! The eruption of Mt. Vesuvius was no doubt a tragic event. However, its historic value in terms of preservation of archeological information, is truly immense. How else would we have such a preserved home of Lucius Caecilius Iucundus? We can find his business transactions in the form of wax tablets. They prove how complex the Roman economy was, showing business loans, city contracts, and various private records. It appears from these wax records, which stop mentioning Iucundus shortly before the earthquake, that he probably perished in this mentioned tragedy. I'll make sure to have a toast to you tonight at my family's SuperBowl party tonight, Lucius! 

Sources

   Andreau, J. (1999). Banking and business in the Roman world. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

   Butterworth, A., & Laurence, R. (2006). Pompeii: the living city. New York: St. Martin's Press.

   Carolis, E. D., & Patricelli, G. (2003). Vesuvius, A.D. 79 the destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Roma: L'Erma di Bretschneider.

   Seneca, L. A., & Corcoran, T. H. (1971). Naturales quaestiones. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Further Reading:

http://naturalesquaestiones.blogspot.com/2009/08/book-vi-tr-john-clarke.html

http://www.pompeiiinpictures.com/pompeiiinpictures/R5/5%2001%2026%20p2.htm

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/62_Pompeii_earthquake

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucius_Caecilius_Iucundus

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturales_quaestiones

Special Thanks: Michael Houghan

February 4

On This Day In Roman History, February 4

 Lucius Septimius Severus Augustus, commonly known as Septimius Severus, dies from an illness in Eboracum on February 4, 211 CE. At this time, Severus was on a campaign into deep Caledonia, potentially to bring the entire island of Britain under Roman control. He began this campaign with an estimated 40,000 men, which can be proven from the archaeological evidence left behind in the form of encampments that would house about this many soldiers. His initial objectives appeared to be fortifying Hadrian's Wall and then constructing a camp to amass the rest of his soldiers just south of the Antonine Wall. Even though Severus would suffer large casualties from Caledonian guerrilla attacks, he would eventually succeed in the form of forcing the Caledonians to give up their territorial stake in the Central Lowlands of Britain.

Did you know?

Severus was responsible for devaluing the purity of the silver currency from 81.5 percent silver to 54 percent by 196 CE. This would be noted as the largest currency devaluation since that of Nero, who had reduced the currency from 99.5 percent silver to 93.5 percent. Severus was required to do this because of his massive amount of hired men within the army, which was necessary for his victories both on the Parthian front and later British front. He also commissioned several expensive construction works including a triumphal arch in the Roman Forum bearing only his full name, the Septizoduim in his home city of Leptis Magna, and large additions to the Flavian Palace near the Circus Maximus. 

Pictured: Bust of Septimius Severus (reign 193–211 CE). White, fine-grained marble, modern restorations (nose, parts of the beard, draped bust). Image by Wikipedia user Bibi Saint-Pol, via Wikimedia Commons. 

Cassius Dio writes about troubles Severus faced during his campaign against the Caledonians: "Severus, accordingly, desiring to subjugate the whole of it, invaded Caledonia. But as he advanced through the country he experienced countless hardships in cutting down the forests, leveling the heights, filling up the swamps, and bridging the rivers; but he fought no battle and beheld no enemy in battle array. The enemy purposely put sheep and cattle in front of the soldiers for them to seize, in order that they might be lured on still further until they were worn out; for in fact the water caused great suffering to the Romans, and when they became scattered, they would be attacked. Then, unable to walk, they would be slain by their own men, in order to avoid capture, so that a full fifty thousand died. But Severus did not desist until he approached the extremity of the island. Here he observed most accurately the variation of the sun's motion and the length of the days and the nights in summer and winter respectively. Having thus been conveyed through practically the whole of the hostile country (for he actually was conveyed in a covered litter most of the way, on account of his infirmity), he returned to the friendly portion, after he had forced the Britons to come to terms, on the condition that they should abandon a large part of their territory."

Opinion

Welcome to my daily opinion! It would have been all kinds of terrifying being part of a military campaign in northern Britain during this time. Guerrilla attacks in foreign land, no maps, heavily wooded, and sometimes even the occasional screaming naked warriors harassing you at every turn. Just a century prior, the warrior queen of the Iceni, known as Boudica, led a somewhat successful uprising with extreme fever that even the Romans noted as impressive. The natives local to these isles were fearsome and at times savage, or what we could consider barbarous. Another interesting note is Severus' wife, Julia Domna, criticized the sexual morals of the Caledonian women. The Caledonian chief's wife, Argentocoxos, replied to her stating "We fulfill the demands of nature in a much better way than do you Roman women; for we consort openly with the best men, whereas you let yourselves be debauched in secret by the vilest". Julia is going to need some burn ointment for that one. 

Sources

   Cocceianus, C. D., Cary, E., & Foster, H. B. (1914). Dio's Roman history. London: W. Heinemann.

   Davies, J. (1994). A history of Wales. London: Penguin Books.

   Grant, M. (1996). The Severans: the changed Roman Empire. London: Routledge.

   Harl, K. W. (1996). Coinage in the Roman economy, 300 B.C. to A.D. 700. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Further Reading:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septimius_Severus

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boudica

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septizodium

Special Thanks: Michael Houghan

February 3

On This Day In Roman History, February 3

A peaceful interregnum that lasts nearly 8 months perpetuates through the Roman Empire, beginning (according to Edward Gibbon) on February 3, 275 CE. Gibbon describes this period by calling it "...one of the best attested but most improbable events in the history of mankind." These events would be kicked off by the interesting death of Lucius Domitius Aurelianus Augustus, more commonly known as Aurelian. An imperial secretary by the name of Eros (name given by the Eastern Roman historian Zosimus) had reportedly lied about a minor issue to Aurelian. Aurelian was known to be a strict ruler in terms of punishing corrupt officials and soldiers alike, and Eros feared the worst. Rather than face the issue with Aurelian, Eros framed him by forging a document that listed several high-ranking Roman officials marked for death. High-ranking officials within the Praetorian Guard, whom were found on the forged list, took action and murdered the Emperor in 275. 

Did you know?

There is a fair amount of evidence to show Aurelian's wife Ulpia Severina, controlled large amounts of political power during the interregnum. Unfortunately, the only information found today on her is found in the form of coins and inscriptions. The biggest indicator that she was ruling, or at least maintaining the peace during the interregnum, is that coins showing Ulpia's depiction appear to have been minted sometime after Aurelian's death. Ulpia had been declared Augusta in 274, furthering the evidence for it to be possible for her rule. This would make her the only Augusta to rule over the entire classical Roman Empire.

Pictured: Antoninianus of Severina. By Rasiel Suarez, Wikimedia Commons.

Ulpia Severina also is found to have the titles Pia, meaning pious, and castrorum et senatus et patriae, meaning mother of the barracks (armies), senate, and country. Outside of these inscripted sources of evidence, and that of the numismatic evidence, there is no further written evidence of any source to back-up claims of political power or reign.

Opinion 

While the physical evidence for Ulpia's control exists only in the form of coins and inscriptions, I think it's wise to remember Gibbon's words describing this as one of the most improbably events of mankind. Why would he describe this interregnum as such? Name a single time in Roman history where usurpers aren't vying for power. 8 months of peace with no ruler? This seems simply impossible in the Roman world, and I believe without a single claim to power it would have been comparable to another "year of the four Emperors". It seems likely that in a patriarchal culture, like that of the Roman's, that not much would be recorded of Ulpia's political success. For these reasons, it is my opinion that while Ulpia was not a true "Empress", she did retain nearly all of Aurelians power during the interregnum and maintained the peace until the ascension of Tacitus. 

Sources

   Gibbon, E. (1955). The decline and fall of the Roman Empire. Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica.

   Southern, P. (2001). The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine. London: Routledge.

   Watson, A. (1999). Aurelian and the Third Century. London: Routledge.

   Z. (1967). Zosimus: Historia nova; the decline of Rome. San Antonio: Trinity University Press.

Further Reading:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurelian

https://www.ccel.org/g/gibbon/decline/volume1/chap12.htm

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulpia_Severina

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interregnum#Historical_periods_of_interregnum

Special Thanks: Michael Houghan

February 2

On This Day In Roman History, February 2

The Breviarium Alaricianum or Lex Romana Visigothorum, commonly known in English as The Breviary of Alaric, is dispersed through The Visigothic Kingdom on February 2, 506 CE. These books were a compilation of  Roman religious and public law and imposed under the Visigothic King,  Alaric II, in his 22nd year of reigning. It was compiled by nobles and clergy alike, and approved by a Anianus who was a contemporary Gallo-Roman nobleman living under the Visigoth rule. These texts were not aimed at the Visigoths, whom already had their own set of laws formed previously under Euric, but rather aimed at the  Hispano-Roman and Gallo-Roman populations living in The Visigothic Kingdom. 

Did you know?

This compilation, often referred to as a codex, had compiled some 43 other works including: 16 books of the Codex Theodosianus, 13 titles of the Gregorian code, 5 books of the Sententiae Receptae of Julius Paulus, 2 titles of the Hermogenian code, the Institutes of Gaius, and the novels of Theodosius II, Valentinian III, Marcian, Majorian and Libius Severus. Together this codex was known to the Visigoths as  the Lex Romana, or Lex Theodosii. It would not be until the 1500's the term “Breviarium” or "Breviary" would be used to describe it. 

Pictured: Page from a 9th-century manuscript of the Breviary of Alaric, depicting King Lodhanri with a bishop, a duke and an earl. Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons. 

The Visigothic Kingdom at this point in time stretched the western coasts of modern day Spain to the edge of Burgundy, boarding the Kingdom of The Franks. The capital was Tolosa (Toulousa), and the kingdom was bordered to the north by the Suebe. 

John F. Matthews observes from the writing of the Codex Theodosianus: "The Theodosian Code does, however, differ from the work of Justinian (except the Novellae), in that it was largely based not on existing juristic writings and collections of texts, but on primary sources that had never before been brought together." Justinian’s Code, published about 100 years later, comprised both (the Latin) ius, "law as an interpretive discipline", and (the Latin) leges, "the primary legislation upon which the interpretation was based."

Opinion

Welcome to my daily opinion. My opinion today is that the Visigoths really weren't super artistic. I mean, I know the dark ages were starting, and art was really declining, but come on. Look at that image above. Just look at it. Even though it may not display artistic brilliance, at least the Visigoths had the good sense to compile this codex for us to check out today, and it is important due the massive amount of historical context that it provides. It is very interesting to note that Alaric wasn't going to impose his strictly Arian Christian views on the Latins he now reigned over, but instead compiled this very "Latin" Christian text. Probably a pretty savvy move to retain power politically.

Sources 

   Kazhdan, A. P., Talbot, A. M., Cutler, A., Gregory, T. E., & Ševčenko, N. P. (1991). The Oxford dictionary of Byzantium. New York: Oxford University Press.

   Krueger, P., Mommsen, T., Meyer, P. M., Gradenwitz, O., & Wretschko, A. V. (1990). Codex Theodosianus. Hildesheim: Weidmann.

   Wolfram, H. (1988). History of the Goths. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Further Reading: 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breviary_of_Alaric

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaric_II

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anianus_(referendary)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex_Theodosianus

Also on this day:

Justin I, Byzantine emperor is born in 450 CE. 

Special Thanks: Michael Houghan 

February 1

On This Day In Roman History, February 1

The dies natalis for the Temple of Juno Sospita takes place on February 1. This festival was celebrated at the Grove of Alernus, near the Tiber at the foot of the Palatine Hill. Alernus, which may also be known as Elernus or Helernus, is mentioned only by the Roman poet Publius Ovidius Naso (more commonly known as Ovid). Alernus' lucus, or sacred grove, was located near the Tiber River. This grove was the mythological birthplace of the nymph Cranea. Ovid combines this nymph with another archaic goddess by the name of Cardea, whom he recognized as having congruent traditions. At the time of Ovid's writing about her, the obscurity of both Cardea and Cranea were recognized, however priests still carried out sacrifices here regularly at the time of Augustus. Alernus may have been a chthonic god, due to the association of the sacrificial animal being a black ox. 

Did you know?

Cardea was the ancient Roman goddess of the door hinge. Romans used a type of pivot hinge still commonly found in use today, and several preserved Roman hinges exist within museums and ruins. Cardea was often associated with two other minor gods known as Forculus, from the Latin fores (door) and Limentinus, from the Latin limen (threshold). Christian writers like St. Augustine mock the observed weakness and triviality of these gods stating "evidently Forculus can't watch the hinge and the threshold at the same time."

Pictured: Front panel of a sarcophagus representing the four seasons. Note the Roman double-doorway representing the entrance to the afterlife. Marble, Roman artwork, middle of the 3rd century CE. Image by: Jean-Pol GRANDMONT, via Wikimedia Commons.

Ovid can be quoted writing about Alernus, saying: "the pontiffs still bring sacrifices thither. There a nymph was born (men of old named her Cranaë), often wooed in vain by many suitors. Her wont it was to scour the countryside and chase the wild beasts with her darts, and in the hollow vale to stretch the knotty nets. No quiver had she, yet they thought that she was Phoebus’ sister; and, Phoebus, thou needst not have been ashamed of her.

Opinion

Welcome to my daily opinion! The more outdated relics of Roman paganism like that of this holiday were apparent to Ovid at the time of Augustus. It is interesting to see these  priests still preforming the ancient tradition as a duty to a festival that was already basically defunct. These types of religious traditions still happen today, in the sense that a dated and strange tradition is followed for the sake of religious custom or habit. Also, I am happy for the sake of trivia I now know the Roman goddess of the door hinge. 

Sources

   Fowler, W. W. (1899). The Roman festivals of the period of the Republic; an introduction to the study of the religion of the Romans. London: Macmillan and Co.

   Morford, M. P., & Lenardon, R. J. (1999). Classical mythology. New York: Oxford University Press.

   O., Showerman, G., Miller, F. J., & Goold, G. P. (1977). Ovid. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Further Reading

http://www.theoi.com/Text/OvidFasti6.html

http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Cardo.html

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardea

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovid

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_of_Juno_Sospita_(Palatine)

Special Thanks: Michael Houghan